Changes in weaponry and recruitment

• What reforms did Rear Admiral Middleton make after the American War of Independence? 


  Shipbuilding remained at wartime levels . Middleton was behind the initiative of coopering. The carronade was also developed and long range guns swithed from a slowmatch to a flintlock mechanism. It was also required by the Board of Ordnance that guns be fired 30 times before being cleared for use. There was greater surveilence at shipyards to eliminate waste and corruption.
• The Carronade

  The carronade was developed in the 1770s. It fired grapeshot at short range and could be fixed to the deck. Having a short barrel but a wider muzzle gave the carronade a far broader angle of fire, meaning it could strike more of the target. It was also very quick to reload and used little gunpowder. The carronade would destroy the deck of enemy ships. The French did not have a weapon similar.
• How was the carronade used in action?

  It was first used by the frigate HMS Rainbow in 1782, causing the surrender of the opposing French ship. In the Battle of Trafalgar, two 68-pounder carronades on HMS Victory fired through the stern windows of one of the French battleships, clearing their top gun deck.
• Why did the use of the carronade decline?

  After the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815, naval tactics changed. Long barrelled guns became quicker and more accurate. The British were able to conduct naval engagements at a distance with superior gunnery. Carronades were phased out by 1851.
• What was the legacy of the Carronade?

  The carronade highlighted the power of the grapeshot against the enemy. The development of high explosive shells fired by artillery on both land and sea was largely due ot the effectiveness of naval carronades. They also drew attention to the problem of windage, this was a gap in the barrel of a gun making the ball slower when fired. The development of rifled barrels solved the issue of windage.
• How was Congreve's rocket introduced?

  Sir William Congreve was a British engineer. He published a book, hoping to convince the government to invest in a new weapon. He was left to develop it on his own however by 1806 he had a working model. The government eventually adopted the new rocket after the Prince of Wales had allowed Congreve to display it's effectiveness to the War office.
• When did Congreve's rockets begin to be used?

  1806, used in small numbers during the wars against Napoleon.
• The first successful use of rockets by the Navy was part of an attack on Boulogne in October 1806. 2000 rockets were fired into the city. The actual damage was limited but it had a significant psychological impact. It became a greatly feared weapon. Rockets were also used in the war of 1812 against the US.
• There was much opposition to the introduction of rockets into the army. Some veterans of the Indian campaigns, such as Wellington, were reminded of their lack of accuracy. They could often be as big of a threat to the firer than the target.
• The Prince of Wales, who was responsible for the introduction of Congreve's rockets, was their biggest advocate. He pushed for their development and use in combat. The 1st rocket troop was in action at the Battle of Waterloo.
• Although Congreve rockets were used after 1815, their problems with accuracy were never solved. British warfare had shifted to colonial conflicts, these problems became much more obvious. Nonetheless, Congreve rockets continued to be deployed during the wars against the New Zealand Maoris between 1845 and 1872.
• Breech loading artillery 


  Traditionally, firepower weapons had been loaded through the muzzle. Re-arming muzzle-loading weapons was a complex process. Being able to load through the breech, closer to the firer, would be far quicker. The first breech loading cannon in Britain was developed by the Armstrong company. The first practical field gun was ready for the army in 1858.
• Armstrong's new cannon 


  Armstrong was inspired by the problems highlighted by the Crimean War. He developed a new cannon for the Royal Artillery. He was told his 5-pounder gun was too light so he set about developing an 18-pounder. It was meant to overcome the issues of sow loading time, barrel wear and poor accuracy.
• As well as being breech-loading, the Armstrong Cannon used projectiles coated in lead, reducing damage to the barrel. This also reduced windage, increasing the accuracy of gun. Less gunpowder was needed to propel the projectile further.
• The army adopted the 12-pounder, breech loader in 1859. The guns required more maintenance and were more expensive than a muzzle-loader. The army reverted to muzzle-loaders for the European wars in 1871 however by the 1880s onwards breech-loading artiller became the norm.
• The Royal Navy also adopted Armstrongs 12-pounder. It became the main armament for naval destroyers in both WWI and WWII.
• The rise of the steel rifled breech-loading cannon caused significant changes in warfare on land and at sea. While the rise of mass forces made the battlefield wider - it improved the range and reliability of weaponry.
• The Maxim Gun 


  The first modern machine gun was designed by Sir Maxim in 1884. It was claimed to fire 600 rounds a minute.
• The Vickers Gun 


  The Vickers company acquired the Maxim company in 1897 and set about making an improved design. The Vickers gun was lighter and proved more reliable. Like the Maxim gun, it needed a crew to operate it, but the gun itself was easier to move.
• The Lewis Gun


  By 1915, a lighter machine gun, the lewis gun was developed. Heavier machine guns like the Vickers were re-formed into the Machine Gun Corps, and then larger machine units would be assigned to divisions. Eventually, each division had its own machine gun battalion.
• What was the impact of the Vickers gun?

  The Vickers gun, and other machine guns, played a major role in the tactical changes that occured in WWI. The machine gun meant fewer men were needed to hold an area. A single machine gin could deliver the same volume of fire as 40-50 riflemen. As weapons became more technologically advanced, soldiers needed to be trained better. Machine guns required training beyond that of an ordinary infantryman however they were far less complicated that rifles.
• Why were tanks created?

  The development of tanks was initially supported by the Royal Navy and pushed forward by Winston Churchill in 1915. THe name tank was adopted as a security measure so the enemy would not find out what they were developing. It was leaked they were developing a 'water carrier' or 'water tank'. The word Tank stuck.
• The development of Mark I

  The first working prototype of the British tank was "Little Willie" and the second was "Big Willie". The best version of "Big Willie" which was working by December 1915, was renamed 'Mother'. It was large and difficult to operate. They also required big crews and engines.
• The tank was first used in the Battle of the Somme in 1916. Haig was determined to use them despite opposition from Churchill. Of the original 50 tanks, only 24 made it to the start line. Several broke down and others were destroyed by artillery. Some did help in the attack.
• The most successful tank action was in 1918 at the Hundred Days Offensive. 400 tanks supported the infantry and followed a creeping barrage. During the first day Britain had had huge success. Tanks helped move the war away from a stalemate.
• Tanks had some success in WWI however it was limited. They were used to their full potential in WWII. Their development had been with the view of providing a means to help infantry break through heavily defended trench systems covered by large amounts of barbed wire.
• What was impressment? 


  Impressment was a legal method of forcing men to join the Navy. Any seafarer between the ages of 15-55 could be pressed into joining the navy. Gangs would patrol coastal areas and look out for seafareers. Merchant ships would often drop off their most valuable men off at Ireland before they reached home, helping them escape impressment.
• What was the role of the recruiting sergeant?

  The army could not legally force people to enlist like the Navy could. Instead, each regiment would have a recruiting sergeant. They would have to persuade men to enlist, often using alcohol to make them sign up. Recruiting sergeants would tell them the total pay of a private however they would not reveal that stoppages would reduce this pay by 80%.
• What role did criminals play?

  Criminals would be given the opportunity to join the Navy instead of finishing their sentence. Some men were even saved from the gallows if they promised to join the army.
• The problems of impressment


  The navy became filled with unwilling men who did not want to serve. As a result, flogging and harsh punishment was used to keep the men under control. The government wanted to create a navy that was enthusiastic about the cause and more professional, so harsh punishment would not be needed.
• The end of impressment

  Impressment remained legal until the 20th century, however it was not used after 1815. The years after the French wars the problem was too many sailors. The navy was also seen as extremely successful. After the Napoleonic wars pay and conditions got better. Overall, there were not as many issues with recruitment for the navy.
• Royal Navy Reserve


  The Royal Navy Reserve was created in 1859. It was created to help with the rapid expansion of the navy in the event of large-scale war. Existing sailors were given gunnery training for one month every year. In 1862, officers from the merchant navy were also included in this. At the time of war, the reserves could be drafted into the navy.
• Specialist recruiters 


  After the Napoleonic wars, recruiting sergeants still existed but were limited to what areas they could cover. Recruiters in towns had a much easier task than those in the countryside. Press gangs were replaced by specialist recruiting officers who would encourage men to join up, rather than force.
• The print media 


  As literacy rates increased , newspapers and posters could be used to reach people. Army regiments would use the local press to target men in their area. Posters were used in the wars against the French however not the same scale there were in later wars.
• How did the economy affect recruitment?

  At times of economic downturn and high unemployment, recruitment into the armed forces boomed. During the 19th century, Britain's economy was extremely successful. This put pressure on recruiters as they were struggling to find men. This also meant that specialist recruiters in poorer areas had better luck. Irish regiments were almost always up to strenght. Regiments in the countryside struggled as people moved to the cities to find work.
• How did recruitment change in WWI? (pre-1916)


  The scale of WWI changed the nature of recruitment. The BEF would not be a sufficient force. There was a huge push for recruitment in late 1914 and early 1915. Soon the British and Commonwealth forces were in the millions compared to the professional force of just over 100,000.
• What were Pals Battalions?

  In 1914, each town was asked to provide a battalion of men, known as 'Pals' battalions. Pals played a key role in the Battle of the Somme. They were often placed in the thick of the fighting and suffered huge numbers of losses. The government saw the impact on local areas due to the number of casualties, so brought an end to the use of Pals Battalions.
• The introduction of conscription

  As WWI progressed, the allies were struggling to meet the huge numbers of German recruits. Britain had to deploy more men into France and Belgium. September 1915, every man aged 18-41 was asked to enlist if they were needed. Only half of single men and 40% of married men did this. Unmarried men would be called first so they was a flurry of weddings in early 1916. The government was left with no choice but to introduce conscription.
• The Military Service Act 1916


  Passed in January 1916, the Military Service Act allowed for the calling up of single men. This was extended to married men by the Second Military Act. Conscription did not have the results the government hoped for but it did keep a steady stream of recruits. There were exemptions for workers in key areas and 750,000 applications for exemption were upheld in the first few months. However, in the first year of conscription 1.1 million men had been drafted.