Beliefs - all

• Popper - ideology and science: Science = open belief system - open to challenge

  Falsification - proving theories wrong
• Merton - ideology and science: Science = open belief system

  CUDOs norms

  Communism - information shared by everyone

  Universalism - evidence agreed by everyone across the world

  Disinterestedness - scientists not interested in egos/fame

  Organised sceptism - encourage findings to be challenged
• Horton - ideology and science: Religion = closed belief system

  Irrefutable truth claims - can't be proved or disproved
• Polanyi - ideology and science: Religion = closed belief system

  Self-sustaining techniques:

  circularity - arguments where the conclusion proves the premise and the premise proves the conclusion

  subsidiary explanations - arguments that explain any flaw with a new argument

  suppression of rival conceptions - arguments designed to dismiss scientific explanations
• Gould - ideology and religion: Compatibility of science and religion

  argues they can coexist

  Science - proves objective, scientific facts

  Religion - subjective, morals e.g. what is right and wrong
• Kuhn - ideology and religion: Science = closed belief system

  Science = paradigm

  if you go against scientific paradigm, you're disregarded

  Paradigm shifts - take years

  Social construction of science - science has too much power in society
• Wooglar: Science - closed belief system

  Astrologists categorised sound patterns from space as Little Green Men / LGM

  Replaced this with 'pulsars' - making themselves look more credible
• Marx - ideology and science: Ruling class ideology - normalisation of capitalism

  Ideology spread through education, RELIGION, and media

  Creates false consciousness
• Roy - ideology and science, feminisn: Feminism - society dominated by ideology that makes people think men are superior to women

  Patriarchy in science

  - understanding women's physiology less than men's

  - medicalisation of pregnancy
• Geller - ideology and science, nationalism: Ideology of nationalism

  Nationalism = most important ideology in modernity

  modernity = individualism - nationalism needed by political leaders to unify people

  
  

  Critique: nationalism isn't as powerful as society is becoming more individual
• Wallis - modernity and secularisation: churches = dominant, well-established religion e.g. Roman Catholic Church

  - universalistic - applies to everyone

  - monopoly of truth

  - uniquely legitimate - the only organisation that is legitimate

  
  

  Critique: Bruce - says definition of church is outdated - religious pluralism

  
  

  denominations = offshoots from existing religions e.g. Baptists, Methodists

  - no monopoly of truth

  - pluralistically legitimate - accept that they aren't the only truth
• Weber - modernity and secularisation: modernity and rationalisation - superstitious beliefs replaced by rational thought

  desacralisation - end of people thinking certain areas of life are sacred e.g. holy sites to pray

  disenchantment - loss of supernatural + superstitious belief
• Wilson - modernity and secularisation: impact of Protestant Reformation:

  Pragmatic rational thinking - doing things practically, thinking for a solution rather than just praying

  Bureaucratic organisation - organisations organised practically, increase productivity

  Scientific discovery - undermines religious belief, makes people think practically

  Rational Ideologies - such as liberalism, communism, socialism rather than just Pope and King

  Societalisation - from small communities premodernity, to modern, complex, urbanised society
• Bruce - modernity and secularisation: Technological worldview - see the world in a physical, technological way rather than supernatural/superstitious

  Religious pluralism - increasing denominations

  Disengagement - people and the state disengaging from religion

  Social differentiation - people becoming more disconnected from each other e.g. live on the same road but do different jobs

  Fragmentation - strong religion replaced with weak religion
• Parsons - modernity and secularisation: Structural differentiation - society = more complex. Services for things people used to do at home e.g. education and health
• Berger - modernity and secularisation: Sacred canopy - shared belief that everyone conformed to e.g. Roman Catholic Church

  Plausibility structure - religion credibility being questioned

  
  

  Critique: NRMs - religious revivals
• 2021 Census UK - evidence of secularisation: 30% - no religion

  Christianity in decline - 46%

  Minority religions increasing e.g. Judaism, Hinduism, alternative religions
• UK church attendance - evidence of secularisation: 5% people regularly going to church

  
  

  Critique: Casonova - decrease of institutional religion, not necessarily belief
• Hadaway - evidence of secularisation: Exaggerated church attendance in US

  - 40% say they attend church

  - Hadaway went to places of worship and estimated actual percentage = 7%
• Casanova - evidence of secularisation: Institutional religion - places of worship - declining in influence

  Personal belief - own beliefs in a personal way - harder to measure
• Davie - secularsation: Vicarious religion - appreciate religion through other people going

  Believing without belonging - people like to know religion is there
• Norris and Inglehart - secularisation: Existential security theory:

  if secure, don't feel the need for belief

  Welfare and security

  USA - doesn't have a good welfare system e.g. NHS so people turn to belief/religion for security

  Uruguay - poorer country but has low church attendance. Has as secure welfare system, people less likely to look to religion

  
  

  Critique:

  - Rich, secure people are still religious, regardless of security

  - Just because a country has welfare doesn't mean people feel secure
• Wallis - NRMs: sects

  - charismatic leader

  - devotion

  - monopoly of truth

  - other-worldly benefits

  cults

  - loosely organised

  - pluralistically legitimate

  - this-worldly benefits
• New Religious Movements (NRMs): new sects and cults emerged since 1960s - modernity

  - religious pluralism
• Wallis - NRMs (types): World-rejecting

  - mostly early stage sects

  - think the world has lost its way and is living in sin

  - extreme

  World-accommodating

  - loss of charismatic leader = can't remain fanatical

  - become more pluralistically legitimate

  - routinisation of charisma - when leader dies, have to delegate leadership

  - sects more moderate

  World-affirming

  - many cults e.g. Scientology

  - accept the world as is
• Stark and Bainbridge - NRMs: Sectarian cycle of sects:

  Schism - split from church/denomination in pursuit of the true way and other-worlding benefits

  Initial fervour - charismatic leader, devotion

  Denominalisation - charismatic leader dies, becomes more world-accommodating

  Establishment - world-accomodating

  Further schism - cycle starts again, usually poorer members
• Niebuhr - NRMs: Denomination or death - sects even become a denomination or stay fanatical (Adventist sects) and die out
• Stark and Bainbridge - NRMs, cults: Audience cults

  - online, through social media, internet

  Client cults - pay to be in and get benefits, religious consumerism e.g. Transcendental Meditation

  Cult movements - fanatical, devoted, isn't a sect because hasn't split from a church
• Weber - growth of NRMs: Marginality - NRMs appeal to those who are marginalised

  Theodicy of disprivilege - disadvantaged are favoured by god

  Hope of salvation to marginalised

  - offers hope that things will get better
• Stark and Bainbridge - growth of NRMs: Radical sects appeal to the deprived

  - appeal to people who feel they are deprived compared to others
• Wilson - growth of NRMs, social change: Traditional norms disrupted - traditional churches can no longer fill needs of people in the changing society

  Methodism during industrial revolution - appealing to w/c in industrial cities

  Post industrial/modern world - new phase of change, age of uncertainty, NRMs appealing as they give stability + certainty
• Heelas - NRMs, New Age: detraditionalism - aren't going through secularisation, religion just isn't traditional anymore.

  Self-spirituality - in fragmented, individualised society, people think differently, finds what suits them

  subjective turn - rejecting collective worship and individuals turning to themselves, finding what works for them
• Heelas and Woodhead - NRMs, New Age: Spiritual revolution - spirituality gone to everyone praying together to people finding what works for them individually

  Congregational domain decline - decline in people going to places of worship to pray

  Holistic domain growing - New Age = advertising online, e.g. sign for Yoga Class

  - Practices happening in all sorts of ways, in lots of places
• Stark and Bainbridge - NRMs, religion as a market: rational choice theory

  - religion = rational choice

  - people rationally think when making a choice e.g. that is too extreme, i can't commit

  supply-led religious market

  - pay to be in cults : client cults

  - cults say they offer benefits, selling their religion

  offer of compensators

  - compensators for people's problems

  - e.g. religion compensate for loneliness, gives people solidarity
• Lyon - NRMs, religion as a market: religious consumerism

  - nobody is accepting being told what to believe

  - so they go to look for what they want to believe (like shopping) e.g. cyber-religion: go online to finds religions

  re-enchantment

  - religious revival

  - direct opposite to Weber's disenchantment
• Hervieu-Leger - NRMs, religion as a market: decline of the chain of memory

  - power of religion passed through generations

  - last 30-40 years, chain of religious belief breaking

  cultural amnesia

  - in age of individualism, people know they can believe what they want

  - losing the culture of their older family

  spiritual individualism

  - people can believe what they want, dependent on what we choose

  spiritual shopping - we choose what we want

  pick and mix process

  - choose what part of beliefs you want to

  - pilgrims: people trying different beliefs

  - convert: people settling on a religion
• Definitions of religion

  substantive - traditional, supernatural/superstitious, gods, afterlife etc

  functional - functions of religion, socialisation, regulation, integration

  constructionist - subjective meaning, social construct, defined by individuals