Revision questions

• Thyroxine


  Hormone that ensures a consistent level in the bloodstream to regulate metabolism and energy production
• Cortisol


  Hormone that follows an episodic pattern influenced by the body's circadian rhythm, helps with stress response, energy regulation, and immune function, with higher levels in the morning
• Epinephrine


  Hormone that has an episodic pattern because it is released in response to stress or excitement, helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight responses
• Progression to cervical cancer


  1. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)

  2. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ (CIS)
• Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)


  Abnormal growth of cells in the cervical epithelium
• Thyroid hormone levels in different conditions

  • Hyperthyroidism: T3 and T4 high, TSH low
  • Primary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH high
  • Secondary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH low or normal
• TSH


  Thyroid-stimulating hormone
• Graves' disease


  Autoimmune thyroid disease associated with exophthalmos, where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland causing excessive thyroid hormone production
• Pre-treatment blood pressure levels


  • Elevated systolic: 120-140mmHg or higher
  • Elevated diastolic: 80-90mmHg or higher
• Stage 1 hypertension blood pressure levels


  • Elevated systolic: 140-160mmHg or higher
  • Elevated diastolic: 90-100mmHg or higher
• Pathogenesis of atherosclerosis


  1. Lipoprotein deposition

  2. Inflammatory reaction

  3. Smooth muscle cap formation

  4. Necrotic core formation with plaque vulnerability
• CK-MB is not stable throughout 7 days and its levels can fluctuate rapidly after a cardiac event
• Cardiac troponin is a highly sensitive and accurate biomarker for cardiac injury, remaining elevated for several days after a cardiac event
• Natriuretic peptide biomarkers A (ANP) and B (BNP) are primarily secreted by the atria and ventricles, respectively, while Natriuretic peptide C (CNP) is secreted by the vascular endothelium
• Drug classes commonly used as front-line treatments for hypertension


  • ACE inhibitors (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme inhibitors) and ARBs (Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers)
  • Diuretics (such as thiazide diuretics)
  • Calcium channel blockers
• Components of Virchow's triad in thrombosis


  • Intravascular vessel wall damage
  • Stasis of flow
  • Presence of a hypercoagulable state
• Polycystic kidney disease (PKD)


  Genetic disorder where fluid-filled cysts develop in the kidneys, leading to kidney enlargement and loss of normal function due to mutations affecting kidney cell development and function
• Common causes for chronic renal failure


  • Diabetes
  • Hypertension
• Common clinical symptoms of chronic renal failure


  • Fatigue
  • Irregular heartbeat
  • Nausea
  • Decreased urine output
  • Shortness of breath
• Causative organisms for pelvic inflammatory disease and potential long-term complications


  • Organism 1 - Chlamydia, Organism 2 - Gonorrhea
  • Complication 1 - Infertility, Complication 2 - Chronic pelvic pain
• Hormonal conditions and their associated ACTH and Cortisol levels

  • Cushing's disease: ACTH - High, Cortisol - High
  • Cushing's syndrome: ACTH - Low, Cortisol - High
  • Addison's disease: ACTH - High, Cortisol - Low
  • Hypopituitarism: ACTH - Low, Cortisol - Low
• Modifiable risk factors for Type 2 Diabetes

  • Unhealthy diet
  • Lack of physical activity
  • Excess body weight or obesity
• Interleukin-4 (IL-4), Interleukin-5 (IL-5), Interleukin-13 (IL-13)


  Cytokines involved in the inflammatory response of asthma, released by immune cells like T-helper 2 (Th2) cells and mast cells
• Spirometry findings in COPD

  • Reduced forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1)
  • Reduced FEV1 to forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio
• Additional tests to monitor COPD progression over time include chest X-rays, CT scans, arterial blood gas analysis, and lung function tests such as peak flow measurements and serial spirometry
• Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)


  Process in lung fibrosis where epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal cells, contributing to the accumulation of fibrotic tissue
• Sample types for lung investigations

  • Sputum
  • Lavage
  • Biopsy
  • Lung surgery
• Steroids


  Modulate inflammatory responses at a cellular level by suppressing the production of inflammatory molecules and inhibiting the activity of immune cells involved in the inflammatory process
• Gastric mucosa


  Protective lining of the stomach that secretes mucus and bicarbonate to create a barrier against the acidic environment and digestive enzymes, preventing auto-digestion
• Gastrointestinal (GI) issues


  Can lead to serious end-stage outcomes like gastrointestinal bleeding, bowel perforation, or sepsis due to factors like untreated infections, prolonged inflammation, or complications from underlying conditions
• Paralytic ileus


  Can be caused by factors like surgery, medications, or electrolyte imbalances
• Mechanical ileus


  Can result from physical blockages in the intestines, such as tumors or adhesions
• Barium


  Used to diagnose various gastrointestinal disorders like ulcers, strictures, tumors, diverticulosis, and certain types of bowel obstructions, as well as in barium swallow tests to evaluate the esophagus and stomach
• Crohn's disease


  Caused by an overactive immune response in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to chronic inflammation, treated with medications to reduce inflammation and manage symptoms, and in some cases, surgery to remove damaged portions of the intestines
• Ulcerative colitis


  Type of inflammatory bowel disease characterized by inflammation and ulcers in the colon and rectum, with periods of remission and flare-ups, treated with medications, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery to remove the affected colon
• Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles


  Key abnormal protein accumulations in Alzheimer's disease that disrupt communication between brain cells and contribute to the progressive decline in cognitive function
• Cholinesterase inhibitors and immunosuppressants


  Main types of drugs used to treat Myasthenia Gravis, helping restore function by increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and improving communication between nerves and muscles
• Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)


  Predominantly affects males due to a mutation on the X chromosome, where males have only one X chromosome and are more likely to develop the disease
• Lewy bodies and loss of dopamine-producing cells


  Main histopathological features of Parkinson's disease that contribute to the motor symptoms
• Risk factors associated with dementia

  • Age
  • Family history
  • Genetics
  • Certain lifestyle factors like smoking and high blood pressure