Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure

• Context

  External cues encoded when learning information
• Mental state

  Internal cues encoded when learning information
• Encoding Specificity Principle

  The greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory
• Context-dependent forgetting

  Forgetting that occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you were learning
• State-dependent forgetting

  Forgetting that occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning
• The Cue-dependent forgetting theory explains forgetting in the LTM as a retrieval failure: the information is stored in the LTM but cannot be accessed. Forgetting according to this theory is due to lack of cues.  
• The Cue-dependent forgetting theory proposes that when we learn the information we also encode the context (external cues) in which we learn the information and the mental state we are in (internal cues). These can act as cues to recall.
• There are two types of cue dependent forgetting: Context-dependent and State-dependent forgetting.
• Godden and Baddeley (1975)

  Aim:

  To test if memory is better when learning and recall take place in the same context.

  Procedure:

  • Divers learned word lists either underwater or on land.
  • Then recalled the words either in the same or opposite environment.

  Findings:

  • Recall was 40% lower when the context changed (e.g. learned underwater, recalled on land).
  • Best recall occurred when learning and recall environments matched.

  Conclusion:

  Supports context-dependent forgetting — retrieval is harder when external cues change.
• Carter and Cassaday (1998)

  • Aim: investigated the effect of mental state on recall using anti-histamine drugs.
  • Procedure: The drugs had a mild sedative effect making the participants drowsy. Participants learned and recalled a word list either: On antihistamines or when alert.
  • Findings: where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance was worse - supporting state-dependent forgetting.
• A strength of retrieval failure as a theory for forgetting is its supporting evidence. There are a lot of research studies providing evidence for retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting. This is a strength because more supporting evidence increases the validity of an explanation - evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs both in real life situations (Godden and Baddeley) and in controlled conditions (Carter and Cassaday) e.g a lab.
• A strength of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting is it’s real-life application. Its ideas are used as a strategy to improve recall in eye-witness testimonies. For example, eyewitnesses are asked to describe context of incident and/or their mental state in cognitive interviews to get them to recall more information. This strengthens this theory as it has proven useful in real life.
• A weakness of retrieval failure as explanation for forgetting is that context effects have been questioned. Baddeley (1997) argued that context effects aren’t very strong in real life. In order to see an actual effect in retrieval failure the contexts have to be very different and that it is very hard to do. This is a limitation as it questions the validity of context-dependent forgetting.
• A weakness of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting is the “Recall vs Recognition” debate. Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated their underwater study with a recognition test instead of a recall test. There was no context-dependent effect and performance was the same in all four conditions. The test didn’t require any recall. This is a limitation of context effects as it suggests that the presence/absence of cue only affects memory when you test it in a certain way.
• Retrieval failure occurs when information is stored in long-term memory (LTM) but cannot be accessed because the correct retrieval cues are not present. “The memory is available but not accessible.”

  • This theory is based on the encoding specificity principle (Tulving, 1983), which states: "A cue will help retrieval only if it was present at the time of encoding."
• A cue is a trigger or clue that helps us retrieve a memory.