Questions

• Secretion pattern for hormones

  1. Thyroxine: Constant secretion

  2. Cortisol: Episodic pattern

  3. Epinephrine: Episodic pattern
• Thyroxine


  Constant secretion ensures a consistent level of the hormone in the bloodstream to regulate metabolism and energy production
• Cortisol


  Follows an episodic pattern because it is influenced by the body's circadian rhythm, helps with stress response, energy regulation, and immune function, with higher levels in the morning to kickstart the day
• Epinephrine


  Also has an episodic pattern because it is released in response to stress or excitement, helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight responses, so it's not needed all the time
• VHL (von Hippel-Lindau) gene mutation


  Gene mutation commonly associated with the clear cell histological type of renal carcinoma
• Progression to cervical cancer

  1. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)

  2. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ (CIS)
• Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)

  Abnormal growth of cells in the cervical epithelium
• Squamous cell carcinoma in situ (CIS)

  Presence of cancerous cells that are confined to the surface layer of the cervix
• Thyroid disorder levels

  • Hyperthyroidism: T3 and T4 high, TSH low
  • Primary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH high
  • Secondary Hypothyroidism: T3 and T4 low, TSH low or normal
• TSH


  Thyroid-stimulating hormone
• Graves' disease


  Autoimmune thyroid disease associated with exophthalmos
• Pre-treatment hypertension values


  • Systolic BP 120-140mmHg or higher
  • Diastolic BP 80-90mmHg or higher
• Stage 1 hypertension values


  • Systolic BP 140-160mmHg or higher
  • Diastolic BP 90-100mmHg or higher
• Pathogenesis of atherosclerosis


  1. Lipoprotein deposition

  2. Inflammatory reaction

  3. Smooth muscle cap formation

  4. Necrotic core formation with plaque vulnerability
• CK-MB is not stable throughout 7 days and its levels can fluctuate rapidly after a cardiac event
• Cardiac troponin is a highly sensitive and accurate biomarker for cardiac injury, it remains elevated for several days after a cardiac event
• The cut-off values for pro-BNP in the diagnosis of acute heart failure can vary based on age
• Natriuretic peptide biomarkers A (ANP) and B (BNP) are primarily secreted by the atria and ventricles, respectively. Natriuretic peptide C (CNP) is secreted by the vascular endothelium
• Front-line drug classes for hypertension treatment

  • ACE inhibitors (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme inhibitors) and ARBs (Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers)
  • Diuretics (such as thiazide diuretics)
  • Calcium channel blockers
• Components of Virchow's triad for thrombosis


  • Intravascular vessel wall damage
  • Stasis of flow
  • Presence of a hypercoagulable state
• Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)


  Genetic disorder where fluid-filled cysts develop in the kidneys, leading to kidney enlargement and loss of normal function, caused by mutations in genes affecting kidney cell development and function
• Common causes of chronic renal failure

  • Diabetes
  • Hypertension
• Clinical symptoms of chronic renal failure

  • Fatigue
  • Irregular heartbeat
  • Nausea
  • Decreased urine output
  • Shortness of breath
• Laboratory findings in chronic renal failure

  • Serum Albumin: Reduced
  • Serum K+: Elevated
  • Serum Ca++: Reduced
  • Blood Urea: Elevated
• Causative organisms for pelvic inflammatory disease

  • Chlamydia trachomatis (CT)
  • Neisseria gonorrhea (NG)
• Potential long-term complications of pelvic inflammatory disease

  • Infertility
  • Chronic pelvic pain
• Hiccups are not typically attributed to Uraemia in chronic renal failure
• Thyroid hormone regulation


  • A: TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
  • B: TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
  • C: T3 and T4 (T3 = triiodothyronine, T4 = thyroxine)

  
• Hormone levels in different conditions

  • Cushing's disease: ACTH - High, Cortisol - High
  • Cushing's syndrome: ACTH - Low, Cortisol - High
  • Addison's disease: ACTH - High, Cortisol - Low
  • Hypopituitarism: ACTH - Low, Cortisol - Low
• Modifiable risk factors for Type 2 Diabetes

  • Unhealthy diet
  • Lack of physical activity
  • Excess body weight or obesity
• Progression of fatty liver disease

  1. Fatty Liver - fat accumulates in the liver

  2. NASH - fat plus inflammation and scarring

  3. Cirrhosis - scar tissue replaces liver cells

  
• Cytokines involved in asthma inflammatory response

  Interleukin-4 (IL-4), Interleukin-5 (IL-5), Interleukin-13 (IL-13) released by Th2 cells and mast cells, acting on eosinophils, B cells, and airway epithelial cells
• Spirometry findings in COPD

  Reduced forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and reduced FEV1 to forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio
• Additional tests to monitor COPD progression

  • Chest X-rays
  • CT scans
  • Arterial blood gas analysis
  • Lung function tests such as peak flow measurements and serial spirometry
• Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) in lung fibrosis

  Transformation of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells, contributing to the accumulation of fibrotic tissue in the lungs
• Sample types obtained by

  • Sputum
  • Lavage
  • Biopsy
  • Lung surgery
• Spirometry findings that indicate COPD

  • Reduced forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1)
  • Reduced FEV1 to forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio
• Additional tests to monitor COPD progression

  • Chest X-rays
  • CT scans
  • Arterial blood gas analysis
  • Peak flow measurements
  • Serial spirometry
• Sample types obtained by

  • Sputum: Coughing up phlegm or mucus from the lungs
  • Lavage: Washing the lungs with saline solution and collecting the fluid
  • Biopsy: Removing a small piece of lung tissue for examination
  • Lung surgery: Various sample types depending on the procedure
• How steroids modulate inflammatory responses at a cellular level

  Suppressing the production of inflammatory molecules and inhibiting the activity of immune cells involved in the inflammatory process