Education - Paper 1 Sociology

• What are the 3 main functions that functionalists argue the education system provides to society?

  1. Creating social solidarity - upholding of shared norms and values
  2. Role allocation - putting the right students in the right jobs
  3. Secondary socialisation - a bridge to wider society with universalistic values rather than the individualists values in the home
• Which functionalist thinker talks about Role Allocation?


  Davis and Moore - Education sifts and sorts people according to their abilities so that the most able gain high qualifications and can progress to doing the most functionally important jobs in society.
• what is Human Capital and who talks about it?

  Shultz, a functionalist.

  It is the economic value of a workers experience and skills.

  He suggests that investment in education benefits the wider economy and society as a whole, creating a cohesive nature.
• To functionalists, the education system is meritocratic, meaning that it is fair and equal for everyone. If students work hard they all have the same opportunity to succeed.
• What is achieved vs. ascribed status?

  Achieved - Individuals work towards achieved status based on their actions, merit, skills, abilities, experience and efforts. Each of which contribute to increasing status. (Ie. An athlete, lawyer, doctor)

  
  

  Ascribed - A position in society which is the result of a fixed characteristic given at birth, such as gender or social class. In many cases this status is a social construct determined before someone is born. (Ie. Titles, race, ethnicity)
• What are universalistic standards?


  Where people are judged according to standards that apply equally to everybody
• What are particularistic standards?


  Where children are treated as particular individuals - typically used within the home by parents
• Criticisms of functionalism…

  1. Marxist argue education benefits only the ruling class and promotes the values of powerful groups
  2. Feminists see education as benefiting men
  3. Hargreaves - education promotes competition and individualism rather than shared values
  4. Education can be diverse because of a hierarchy of schools and universities, which can separate social classes
  5. A great deal of research shows that class, gender and ethnicity influence achievement
  6. Other factors besides qualifications influence the labour market (ie. Social contacts)
• To Marxists, education is a part of the superstructure controlled by the bourgeoisie, benefiting only them. It is shaped by the interests of the ruling class, maintaining the status quo and encouraging the proletariat into a false class consciousness.
• Key Study: Bowles and Gintis - Capitalist schooling

  • There is a close relationship between schooling and work, because schooling is used to prepare children for working in capitalist businesses.
  • See the idea of meritocracy as a myth, in reality class background determines how well a person does.
  • however because people believe the education system is meritocratic, it legitimates the system, making it seem fair.
• What is the Correspondence Principle, who talks about it?

  • Bowles and Gintis
  • Education mirrors employment.
  • Ie. being on time for school/work, being presentable or following a uniform, listening to those in positions of power above you
  • Pupils are motivated by the external rewards of exam success just as workers are motivated by wages
  • In both instances, workers/pupils are rewarded for ‘good behaviour’ and following of rules
  • Both work and education are fragmented so that workers/pupils have little overall understanding of production or society - this keeps them divided
• What is the hidden curriculum and who talks about it?

  • Bowles and Gintis
  • The things in schools that are not explicitly taught as such, but pupils still learn them - Ie. acceptance of hierarchy
  • Conformist pupils are awarded higher grades than those who challenge authority
• Criticisms of Marxism…

  1. Brown et al believe that much work now requires teamwork rather than obedience
  2. Reynolds believes that some education encourages critical thinking (Ie. Sociology)
  3. Some neo-Marxists, like Willis believe that the hidden curriculum is not always accepted
  4. Local education authorities and teachers have some independence and do not have to follow the wishes of capitalists
  5. Functionalists believe that education benefits society as a whole
  6. Feminists argue Marxists ignore the inequality girls face
  7. Bowles and Gintis’ research is dated and USA focused so may not apply today
• Althusser - argues that the reproduction of labour power involves 2 processes…

  1. The reproduction of the skills necessary for an efficient labour force
  2. The reproduction of ruling class ideology and the socialisation of workers in terms of it

  The role of education in capitalist society is the reproduction of a submissive and obedient workforce.
• According to Althusser, how is the subject class kept in its place?

  Through institutions that are Ideological State Apparatuses transmitting ruling class ideology, creating a false class consciousnes.
• In what 3 ways does Giroux disagree with the conventional Marxists approach?

  1. Working class pupils do not passively accept everything they are taught, but actively shape their own education and sometimes resists the discipline imposed on them by schools
  2. Schools are sites of ideological struggle for different classes, ethnic, religious and cultural groups. Capitalists have more power than any other single group, but not all the power
  3. The education system provides relative autonomy from the economic base. It has some independence and is not always shaped by the needs of the capitalist economy
• What is a dual-consciousness and who talks about it?

  • Willis
  • W/c pupils can see through the capitalists system but saw themselves as having little chance of progressing through hard work in education to well-paid/high status jobs, and so did not try to break the expectation
• Key study: Willis - Learning to Labour

  • Ethnographic study of ‘the lads’ in a Midlands comprehensive school in the 1970’s
  • Used interviews, observation and participant observation in the school
  • The ‘lads’ saw themselves as superior, were not interested in getting academic qualifications, aimed to do as little work as possible while entertaining themselves with bad behaviour, identified more with the adult world, formed a counterculture which was sexist and racists and valued traditional w/c masculinity
  • Manual labour was more valuable to them than ‘pen-pushing’
• Shop floor culture and the counter-school culture:

  
  

  Willis followed the lads into their first jobs, often in factories. He found their workplace culture to be similar to their counter-school culture in that it was racists/sexists and had little respect for authority. They tried to do as little work as possible while enjoying themselves through ‘having a laugh’.

  
  

  Despite their knowing of the class inequality, they did not try to change their situation and their actions led them into jobs where they ended up being exploited by the ruling class.
• What criticisms can be made of Willis’ study?

  It has a small, unrepresentative sample and can be seen as being out of date
• What theory are Giroux and Willis a part of?

  Neo-Marxism
• Althusser is a…

  Marxist thinker
• Social democratic is…


  Left wing - in favour of greater equality and greater state intervention in the economy.
• Social democracy argues society produces inequality of income and wealth, which creates inequality of opportunity. Those from advantaged backgrounds tend to do better in the education system.
• Social democratic perspectives influenced labour governments of the…

  1960’s and 1970’s
• What is the tripartite system?


  A system of education in England and Wales that divided secondary education into three different types of schools: grammar schools, secondary modern schools, and technical schools.
• Grammar schools were selective, taking only higher-ability pupils.
• Social democratic policies:

  Replaced tripartite system with comprehensive schools which all pupils attended with the intention for it to…

  • Get rid of class divisions
  • Create more equal opportunities
  • encourage economic growth by ensuring that talent was not wasted through sending talented pupils to secondary modern schools where they would not develop their skills fully

  The labour government also worked to reduce inequality through taxation (progressive taxation) and welfare policies where welfare was provided to the less well-off so that they did not live in poverty.
• What type of education does the New Right favour?

  Vocational - to train the workforce, which is seen by them as the main role of the education system.
• New Right policies:

  • Introduced market forces and competition between educational institutions
  • Schools competed for pupils and unpopular schools lost money
  • Greater choice was introduced with new types of schools (Ie. Grant-maintained schools directly funded by the government)
  • National curriculum, league tables, regular inspections and frequent testing to drive standards up and make the UK more economically competitive
• Cultural deprivation


  The working class are deprived of the culture necessary for cultural success.
• Lockwood claimed to identify distinctive subcultures associated with the middle class and the working class.
• Bernstein identified two different ways of speaking – restricted code and elaborated code.
• Time orientation:

  W/c -

  • Present time orientation - live life in the moment rather than worrying about the future.

  M/c -

  • Future time orientation - thinking ahead rather than living in the moment.
• Attitude to gratification:

  W/c -

  • Seek immediate gratification - enjoy yourself now (Ie. Spending your wage packet as soon as you receive it.)

  M/c -

  • Deferred gratification - put off pleasure now in order to achieve greater pleasure in the future (Ie. Saving for a deposit on a house.)
• Significant reforms in schooling were introduced in the 1988 Education Reform Act.
• Formula funding and open enrolment: Details

  • School admissions were not controlled by Local Education Authorities, schools could enrol as many pupils as they could fit into the building.
  • Parents given more choice of schools.
  • Funding was based on number of pupils attracted.
• Formula funding and open enrolment: Purpose

  • Competition would drive up standards.
  • Popular schools could expand, so more pupils got a good education.
  • Poorer schools had to improve or teachers’ jobs were at risk.
• Formula funding and open enrolment: Problems/criticisms

  • Schools in m/c areas tended to be better than those in w/c areas.
  • Popular schools tended to be oversubscribed, so many people did not get their first choice.
  • M/c manipulated the system to their advantage.
• National Curriculum: Details

  • Government decide on most of the curriculum content, with detailed targets for achievement of pupils at different key stages.