MODULE 2

• Anatomic Directions


  • Anterior (ventral) - toward or at the front of the body
  • Posterior (dorsal) - toward or at the back of the body
  • Medial - toward the midline of the body
  • Lateral - toward the side of the body
  • Proximal - nearer to the point of attachment or to a given reference point
  • Distal - farther from the point of attachment or to a given reference point
• Anatomic Directions


  • Superior - above, in a higher position
  • Inferior - below, in a lower position
  • Cranial (Cephalad) - toward the head
  • Caudal - towards the lower end of the spine; in humans, in an inferior direction
  • Superficial (external) - closer to the surface of the body
  • Deep (internal) - closer to the center of the body

  
• Body Planes


  • Sagittal plane - plane that divides the body into right and left
  • Midsagittal plane - plane that divides the body into equal right and left
  • Coronal plane - plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
  • Midcoronal plane - plane that divides the body into equal anterior and posterior parts
  • Transverse (horizontal) plane - plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
• Body Cavities


  • Abdominal Cavity - large ventral cavity below the diaphragm and above the pelvic cavity
  • Abdominopelvic Cavity - large ventral cavity between the diaphragm and pelvis that includes the abdominal and pelvic cavities
  • Cranial Cavity - dorsal cavity that contains the brain
  • Pelvic Cavity - ventral cavity that is below the abdominal cavity
  • Peritoneum - large serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs within it
  • Spinal Cavity (canal) - dorsal cavity that contains the spinal cord
  • Thoracic Cavity - ventral cavity above the diaphragm, the chest cavity
• Body Positions


  • Anatomic position - standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, legs parallel, toes pointed forward; uses for descriptions and studies of the body
  • Decubitus position - lying down, specifically according to the part of the body resting on a flat surface, as in right or left lateral decubitus, or dorsal or ventral decubitus
  • Dorsal recumbent position - on back, with legs bent and separated, feet flat; used for obstetrics and gynecology
  • Fowler position - on back, head of the bed raised about 18 inches, knees elevated; used to ease breathing and for drainage
  • Lateral recumbent position - on the side with one leg flexed, arm position may vary
  • Prone - lying face down
  • Supine - lying face up
  • Sim's position - on the left side, right leg drawn up high and forward, left arm along back, chest forward resting on bed; used for kidney and uterine surgery, colon examination, and enemas
  • Trendelenburg position - on back with head lowered by tilting the bed back at 45-degree angle; used for pelvic and abdominal surgery, treatment of shock
  • Lithotomy position - on back, legs flexed on abdomen, thighs apart; used for gynecologic and urologic surgery

  
• Medicine


  Branch of science that deals with the practice of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases
• Disease


  Any disorder of normal body function
• Categories of Diseases


  • Infectious diseases - caused by certain harmful microorganisms and other parasites that live at expense of another organism
  • Degenerative diseases - result from wear and tear, aging or trauma (injury) that can lead to a lesion (wound) and necrosis (tissue death)
  • Neoplasia - uncontrolled growth of tissue
  • Immune disorders - failures of the immune system, allergies, and autoimmune diseases, in which the body makes antibodies to its own tissues
  • Metabolic disorders - result from lack of enzymes or other factors needed for cellular functions
  • Hormonal disorders - caused by underproduction or overproduction of hormones or by an inability of the hormones to function properly
  • Mental and emotional disorders - affect the mind and adaptation of an individual to his or her environment
• Pathogen


  Any disease-causing agent
• Etiology


  Causes of a disease
• Acute


  Disease is sudden, severe and of short duration
• Chronic


  Disease is long and progresses slowly
• Manifestations of Diseases


  • Abscess - localized collection of pus
  • Adhesion - uniting of two surfaces or parts that may normally be separated
  • Anaplasia - lack of normal differentiation, as shown by cancer cells
  • Ascites - accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity
  • Cellulitis - a spreading of inflammation of tissue
  • Effusion - escape of fluid into a cavity or other body part
  • Exudate - material that escapes from blood vessels as a result of tissue injury
  • Fissure - a groove or split
  • Fistula - an abnormal passage between the two organs or from an organ to the surface of the body
  • Gangrene - death of tissue, usually caused by lack of blood supply; may be associated with bacterial infection and decomposition
  • Hyperplasia - excessive growth of normal cells in normal arrangement
  • Hypertrophy - increase in the size of an organ without increase in the number of cells, may result from an increase in activity, as in muscles
  • Induration - hardening, an abnormally hard spot or place
  • Metaplasia - conversion of cells to a form that is not normal for that tissue
  • Polyp - tumor attached by a thin stalk
  • Purulent - forming or containing pus
  • Suppuration - pus formation
• Diagnosis


  Determination of the nature and cause of an illness, begins with a patient history
• Components of Diagnosis


  • Symptoms - evidence of diseases
  • Sign - manifestation of a diseases that the physician perceives
  • Physical examination - includes a review of all systems and observation of any signs of illness, and follows the history taking
• Techniques used in Physical Examination

  • Inspection - visual examination
  • Palpation - touching the surface of the body with the hands or fingers
  • Percussion - tapping the body to evaluate tissue according to the sound produced
  • Auscultation - listening to body sounds with a stethoscope
• Vital Signs


  • Temperature
  • Pulse rate - measured in beats per minute (bpm)
  • Respiration rate - measured in breaths per minute
  • Blood pressure (BP) - measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and recorded when the heart is contracting (systolic pressure) and relaxing (diastolic pressure)
• Imaging Techniques


  • Radiography - use of x-rays to produce images of internal structures either on specially sensitized film or digitally, also called ROENTGENOGRAPHY
  • Fluoroscopy - use of x-rays to obtain dynamic images; used to examine deep structures
  • Computed Tomography (CT) Scan - use of computer to generate images from a large number of x-rays that passed at different angles through the body; 3D image of a cross-section of the body is obtained
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - production of images through the use of a magnetic field and radio waves
  • Ultrasonography - generation of images from the use of echoes of high frequency sound waves travelling back from different tissues
  • Scintigraphy - imaging the radioactivity distribution in tissues after internal administration of a radioactive substance (radionuclide)
  • Positron Imaging Tomography (PET) - production of sectional body images by administration of a natural substance, such as glucose labeled with a positron-emitting isotope
  • Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) - scintigraphic technique that permits visualization of a radioisotope's cross sectional distribution
  • Cineradiography - making of a motion picture of successive images appearing on a fluoroscopic screen

  
• Purposes of Surgery


  • Restoration
  • Treatment
  • Diagnosis
  • Relief
• Treatment


  Consist of counseling, drugs, surgery, radiation, physical therapy, occupational therapy, psychiatric treatment, or some combination of these
• Surgery


  Method for treating disease or injury by means of cutting or puncturing tissue with a sharp instrument in the process of incision. Uses anesthesia to dull or eliminate pain
• Principles of Medical Treatment

  • Curative - to cure a patient of an illness
  • Palliative - to relieve symptoms from an illness
  • Prophylactic - to avoid onset of an illness
• Drug


  Substance that alters the body function; can be derived from natural plant, animal, and mineral sources
• Key Drug Terms


  • Side effect - unintended effect of a drug or any other form of treatment
  • Contraindication - reasons not to use a particular drug for a specific individual based on the person's medical conditions, current medications, sensitivity, or family history
  • Anaphylaxis - immediate and severe allergic reaction that may be caused by a drug; can lead to life-threatening respiratory distress and circulatory collapse
  • Antagonist - substance that interferes with or opposes the action of a drug
  • Brand name - trade or proprietary name of a drug
  • Efficacy - power to produce a specific effect or result
  • Generic name - simplified version of the chemical name of a drug
  • Phytomedicine - another name for herbal medicine
  • Potentiation - increased potency created by two drugs acting together
  • Prescription - written and signed order for a drug with directions for its administration
  • Substance dependence - condition that may result from chronic use of a drug, in which a person has a chronic or compulsive need for a drug regardless of its adverse effects
  • Synergy - combined action of two or more drugs working together to produce an effect greater than any of the drugs could produce when acting alone
  • Tolerance - condition in which use of a drug results in loss of effectiveness and the dose must be increased to produce the original response
  • Withdrawal - abrupt reduction of a drug that has been used regularly
• Drug Classes


  • Adrenergic - mimic the action of sympathetic nervous system, which responds to stress; used to treat bronchospasms, allergic reactions, hypotension
  • Analgesics - alleviate pain
  • Anesthetics - reduce or eliminate sensation
  • Anticoagulants - prevent coagulation and formation of blood clots
  • Anticonvulsants - suppress or reduce the number and/or intensity of seizures
  • Antidiabetics - prevent or alleviate diabetes
  • Antiemetics - relieve symptoms of nausea and prevent vomiting
  • Antihistamines - prevent responses mediated by histamine: allergic and inflammatory reactions
  • Antihypertensives - lower blood pressure by reducing cardiac output, dilating vessels, or promoting excretion of water by the kidneys
  • Anti Infective agents - kill or prevent the growth of infectious organisms
  • Antineoplastic - destroy cancer cells
  • Cardiac drugs - act on heart
  • CNS Stimulants - stimulates the central nervous system
  • Diuretics - promote excretion of water, sodium, and other electrolytes by the kidneys
  • Gastrointestinal drugs - act on the digestive tract
  • Muscle relaxants - depress nervous system stimulation of skeletal muscles; used to control muscle spasms and pain
  • Psychotropics - affect the mind, altering mental activity, mental state or behavior
  • Respiratory drugs - act on respiratory system
  • Sedatives/hypnotics - induce relaxation and sleep; lower (sedative) doses promote relaxation leading to sleep; higher (hypnotic) doses induce sleep