psychopathology

• Abnormality


  Difficult to define, psychologists disagree about the causes of mental disorders and how they reveal themselves
• Criteria for defining abnormality

  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
• Statistical infrequency


  • Abnormal behaviour is that which is rare/uncommon
  • Any individuals that fall outside the 'normal distribution' (about 5% of a population) are perceived as being abnormal
• Deviation from social norms


  Abnormal behaviour is that which goes against unwritten rules/expectations in a given society/culture
• Failure to function adequately


  Abnormal behaviour is that which causes person distress or an inability to cope with everyday life
• Deviation from ideal mental health


  Abnormality is that which fails to meet prescribed criteria for psychological normality/wellbeing
• Key features of ideal mental health

  • Positive attitude towards self
  • Resistance to stress
  • Accurate perception of reality
  • Independent (Autonomy)
  • Self-actualization
  • Environmental mastery
• Characteristics of psychological disorders

  • Phobias
  • Depression
  • Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• Behavioural characteristics


  How the person is behaving or acting
• Emotional characteristics


  How the person feels
• Cognitive characteristics


  A person's thoughts and mental processes
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  • Panic
  • Avoidance
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  • Fear
  • Anxiety
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  • Selective attention to the phobic stimulus
  • Irrational beliefs
• Phobias


  An extreme fear of an object or situation or activity which is irrational and disproportionate (to the actual danger)
• avoiding parks or picnics during the summer because of a wasp phobia
• Emotional responses in phobias

  • Fear - feelings of terror or feeling scared
  • Anxiety - feelings of worry or distress in the presence of the phobic stimulus
• Cognitive responses in phobias

  • Selective attention to the phobic stimulus - difficulty directing attention elsewhere
  • Irrational beliefs - illogical, erroneous, or distorted ideas about the danger posed
• Sub-types of phobias


  • Specific phobias - fear of a specific thing
  • Social phobias - being over anxious in social situations
  • Agoraphobia - fear of leaving home or a safe place
• The two-process model of how phobias are acquired and maintained

  1. Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning

  2. Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning
• Classical conditioning


  Phobias are acquired by forming an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus which creates a fear response
• The case study of Little Albert

  • Albert showed a natural fear response to loud noises (UCS)
  • Albert was presented with a white rat (NS) and a loud noise (UCS), leading to Albert fearing the white rat (CS)
• Operant conditioning


  Avoidance of the feared object or situation reduces the unpleasant feelings of fear/anxiety caused by the conditioned stimulus, acting as negative reinforcement which strengthens the avoidance behaviour
• The two-process model suggests that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
• Some common phobias such as fear of heights, snakes and insects often do not develop as a result of a negative experience, and could be better explained using the biological preparedness theory
• Systematic desensitisation (SD)


  1. Relaxation techniques are taught

  2. Hierarchy of feared situations is established

  3. Gradual exposure to feared stimuli while using relaxation

  4. Anxiety levels reduced at each step before moving on
• Reciprocal inhibition


  It is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other
• Systematic desensitisation works on the assumption that two emotional states cannot exist at the same time, a theory known as reciprocal inhibition, and eventually relaxation will replace the fear
• Flooding


  1. Immediate and direct exposure to the phobic stimulus

  2. Anxiety levels eventually decrease as the option of avoidance is removed
• Depression is an affective/mood disorder where at least 5 symptoms must be apparent every day for 2 weeks for diagnosis, with one symptom being a constant depressed mood or lessened interest in daily activities
• Characteristics of depression


  • Behavioural: Change in activity levels, Neglecting personal hygiene, Sleep disruption
  • Cognitive: Negative thoughts, Difficulty concentrating, Indecisiveness
  • Emotional: Feelings of worthlessness or guilt, Loss of interest or pleasure
• as it involves forcing the sufferer to experience high levels of anxiety
• Because of the intense levels of anxiety, the drop-out rate is sometimes rather high which means that it could actually enhance their fear rather than reducing it
• Furthermore, it may not be seen as suitable for children or vulnerable adults
• Therefore, it could be argued that flooding is not suitable treatment for all sufferers
• Depression


  An affective/mood disorder
• At least 5 symptoms must be apparent every day for 2 weeks for depression to be diagnosed by a doctor, with an impairment in general functioning also evident
• One of these symptoms must be a constant depressed mood or lessened interest in daily activities
• Characteristics of Depression - Behavioural


  • Change in activity levels – for example, increased lethargy (lack of energy) and withdrawal from activities that were once enjoyed
  • Neglecting personal hygiene – e.g. bathing, wearing clean clothes etc.
  • Sleep disruption – decreased sleep, insomnia (inability to fall asleep or stay asleep) or increased sleep, hypersomnia (oversleeping)
• Characteristics of Depression - Emotional

  • Low mood - A key characteristic is the ever present and overwhelming feelings of sadness/negativity, sometimes described as feelings of 'emptiness'
  • Worthlessness - Those suffering from depression often have constant feelings of low self-worth and/or inappropriate feelings of guilt. In extreme cases, it could involve a feeling of self-loathing (hating themselves)