observations

• observations

  = non-experimental method which allows a researcher to study observable behaviour in a natural controlled setting.

  • allows the researcher more flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way.
• Naturalistic observations

  =takes place in a natural setting

  • have high external validity
  • lack control of extraneous variables which makes replication difficult.
• controlled observations

  = usually an artificial setting with a degree of control over variables.

  • high internal validity, replication is possible because of standard procedures.
  • poor external validity
• Participant observations

  = researcher becomes part of the group they are studying.

  • increase validity because they have a greater insight.
  • might become too involved and lose objectivity
• non-participant observations

  = researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records their behaviour objectively

  • maintain an objective distance
  • may lose valuable insight into participants behaviour.
• covert observations

  = participants not aware they are being studied.

  • removes participant reactivity
  • ethics, people might not consent or want to be observed
• overt observations

  = a participant knows they are being observed and have given their informed consent.

  • more ethically acceptable
  • if participants know they are being watched it may have influence on their behaviour.
• structured observations

  = target behaviours are identified and clearly defined in categories.

  • easier and more systematic with less chance of bias.
• unstructured observations

  = produce large amounts of data, appropriate when observations involve a small group.

  • can be difficult to record and analyse, greater risk of observer bias.
• behavioural categories

  = in order to produce a record of what a researcher sees it's necessary to break up behaviour into categories or a checklist.

  • data collection more structured and objective
  • all possible forms of behaviour should be included
  • categories should be exclusive and not overlap.
• event sampling

  = counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs.

  • useful when the target behaviour happens infrequently.
• time sampling

  = recording behaviour within pre-established time frame

  • effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made.