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• Organic Chemistry


  The study of carbon compounds
• Organic compounds


  • Have carbon and hydrogen
• Carbon electron configuration


  1S2 2S2 2P2
• Carbon needs


  A total of eight valence electrons, to fill its outer energy level
• Full outer energy level

  The most stable arrangement of electrons
• Hydrocarbon


  A compound with only carbon and hydrogen
• Saturated hydrocarbon


  A hydrocarbon containing only single bonds
• Alkanes


  Have the general formula CnH2n+2

  
• Names of unbranched alkanes

  • With 1 to 20 carbon atoms

  
• Alkanes configuration


  • The carbon atoms in alkanes are sp3-hybridized, and have tetrahedral shapes, with the bonded atoms at angles of 109.5° to each other
  • Free rotation is possible around the carbon-carbon single bonds in alkanes, making the carbon chains very flexible

  
• Skeletal formula


  A representation of molecular structure in which covalent bonds are shown as lines

  
• Alkyl groups


  Formed by removing one hydrogen from the corresponding alkane and are named based on this alkane by simply changing the ending from –ane to -yl
• Nomenclature of Alkanes


  1. Find the parent chain

  2. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain as the parent chain

  3. If more than one different chains are of equal length, choose the one with more numbers of branches points (substituents) as the parent

  4. Number the Carbon Atoms in the longest carbon chain, starting at the end that gives the smallest number for the first branch

  5. Identify and number the substituents and list them in alphabetical order

  6. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them the same number

  7. If two or more identical substituents are present use the prefixes: di- for two, tri- for three, tetra- for four
• Alkane nomenclature


  • 3-ethylhexane
  • 2,3-dimethylpentane
  • 4-ethyl-3-methyloctane
  • 2,4-dimethylhexane

  
• Physical Properties of Alkanes

  • The melting and boiling temperatures of shorter chain alkanes are low, but as the number of carbon atoms in the carbon chain rises, the melting and boiling values of alkanes rise
  • The cause is that, when a number of carbon and hydrogen atoms increase, the additive effects of van der Waals forces become significant leading to increase the m.p & b.p
• Preparation of alkanes


  1. Hydrogenation of Alkene

  2. Reduction of alkyl halide

  3. Hydrolysis of gringard reagent

  
• Reactions of Alkanes


  1. Halogenation: In the presence of light, or at high temperatures, alkanes react with halogens to form alkyl halides

  2. Nitration: Alkanes can be nitrated by nitric acid at a temperature of 675-775 K

  3. Combustion: Alkanes burn in excess of air or oxygen to provide carbondioxide and water

  
• سيادة القانون


  علاقة وثيقة ما بين الديمقراطية وتطبيق القانون، إذ يُمكن للمواطنين الحُكم على شرعيّة الحكومة بعد إخضاع العملية السياسية للقوانين ووضعها ضمن إطار تنظيمي
• المساءلة والشفافية


  الحكومة التي تم انتخابها من قبل الشعب مسؤولةً أمامه، ومن أجل التحقق من إنجازاتها وقيامها بواجباتها، كتقديم الخدمات الصحية، أو تسعير الوقود، أو غيرها من الإجراءات ينبغي وجود مؤسساتٍ مُحايدة في الدولة لتقييم ذلك، كسلطات قضائية مستقلة
• اللامركزية


  تُشجّع المواطنين ليصبحوا أكثر وعياً من أجل المشاركة في الديمقراطية، وتُسهم في تقليل نفوذ القوى السياسية، كما تشير إلى مدى اقتراب الحكومة من حُكم الشعب، ولنجاح الديمقراطية ضمن اللامركزية ينبغي توافر موارد بشرية وكفاءة مؤسسية، وتمويل لا مركزي
• المجتمع المدني


  يشمل العديد من الأنشطة والمشاركات كالمجموعات التي تهتم بقضايا معينة، أو المنتديات المجتمعية، أو الأندية، أو الجمعيات الخيرية، أو النقابات، إضافةً لمجموعات واسعة من الأعمال التطوعية وغيرها من النشاطات التي تندرج ضمن المجتمع المدني، والتي بدورها تساعد على نمو الديمقراطية الشعبية في المجتمع
• أنواع الديمقراطية


  • الديمقراطية المباشرة
  • الديمقراطية النيابية
  • الديمقراطية التعددية
• الديمقراطية المباشرة


  أحد أنواع الديمقراطية التي يتم فيها التصويت من قبل الشعب على أي من القرارات السياسية بشكل مباشر ودون الحاجة لأي ممثلين عنهم، وأي قرار يصدر عن الحكومة يجب أن يُعرض على المواطنين كي يتم التصويت عليه، ويكون لهؤلاء المواطنين الدور الأول لتقرير مصير بلادهم
• الديمقراطية النيابية

  الأكثر انتشاراً في جميع أنحاء العالم، وفي هذا النوع يتم التصويت لمجموعة من الأفراد لتمثل الشعب في البرلمان، حيث يتم الاستفادة من خبرات الأفراد الذين تم انتخابهم من أجل صنع واتخاذ القرارات، بينما يُتابع باقي أفراد الشعب مهامه الأخرى
• Respiratory system


  Complex of organs and tissue which are necessary to exchange blood carbon dioxide (CO2) with air oxygen (O2)
• Function of respiratory system


  • Act of breathing, which includes inhaling and exhaling air in the body
  • Absorption of oxygen from the air in order to produce energy
  • Discharge of carbon dioxide, which is the by product of the process
• Divisions of the respiratory system

  • Conducting airways
  • Respiratory airways

  
• Conducting airways


  • Serve to conduct, clean, warm, and moisten the air
  • Composed of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles

  
• Respiratory airways


  • Facilitate gas exchange
  • Located entirely within the lung and are represented by respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli

  
• Structures of the respiratory system


  • Some lie outside the lungs (extrapulmonary) and need cartilaginous supports in their walls
  • Some are inside the lungs (intrapulmonary), where the need for structural support is less
  • The respiratory bronchioles constitute an area of transition between the conducting and respiratory portions

  
• Functions of the conducting portion

  • Provide a route for the air to reach the lungs
  • Condition the air through filtration, cleansing, moistening, and warming/cooling
• Respiratory epithelium


  Specialized epithelium that lines much of the surface of the conducting portion

  
• Nose and nasal cavity


  • External nostrils (nares) and vestibule have coarse hairs to filter large particles
  • Nasal cavities are lined by a ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium containing the cell bodies of bipolar nerve (olfactory) cells

  
• Regio olfactoria


  Olfactory region (about 10 cm2) lined by a highly specialized sensory "epithelium", which is in fact composed of neurons and glia
• Cell types in the respiratory system epithelium

  • Ciliated cells
  • Goblet (mucous) cells
  • Basal (short) cells
  • Clara cells (bronchiolar epithelial cell)
  • Brush cells
  • Dense core granule cells (small granule cell, neuroendocrine cell)
  • Serous cells
  • Intermediate cells

  
• Most food that we eat is "tasted" by chemoreception of the olfactory organ
• Larynx


  • Irregular tube connecting the pharynx to the trachea
  • Functions: phonation (creation of sounds for speech) and control of the air pathway so that only air (and not food or foreign objects) reaches the lower respiratory passages

  
• Mucosa of the larynx

  • Has two pairs of folds: false vocal cords (upper folds) and true vocal cords (lower folds)
  • True vocal cords consist of stratified squamous epithelium, vocal ligament, and vocal muscle
• Trachea


  • Short tube (about 10 cm long) extending from the larynx to the bifurcation at the beginning of the two primary bronchi
  • Lined with typical respiratory epithelium and has about 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

  
• Structures of the respiratory system

  • Trachea
  • Bronchi
  • Bronchioli
  • Pulmonary alveoli