GS + GG - Case Studies

• Antarctica is the most southern continent in the world, containing the South Pole and stretching an area of 14 million km^2
• The majority of Antarctica is covered in ice, making it the largest ice sheet in the world and holding 90% of all of the Earth’s surface freshwater
• Coastal areas of Antarctica receive the most precipitation, averaging around 400 mm - 600 mm+ a year
• Inland Antarctica has barely any precipitation, with some places averaging under 50 mm of precipitation a year
• The ecosystem in Antarctica is not very biodiverse, with only hardy plants such as mosses and lichen able to grow, and hardly any land animals except for insects
• The Southern Ocean is diverse in marine life, with lots of fish, krill, penguins, seals, and whales
• Antarctica is rich in natural resources like fossil fuels and minerals, with large reserves of oil located in the Southern Ocean and iron ore deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains
• Antarctica is vulnerable due to the demand for resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and fish, and its climate is fragile and highly adapted to the extreme environment
• Major threats to Antarctica include climate change, fishing and whaling, mineral/resource exploitation, and tourism and scientific research
• Unsustainable fishing in Antarctica disrupts the food chain, with overfishing of krill being a major concern
• Whaling and sealing are also significant threats to the Antarctic ecosystem, with past events still impacting whale populations today
• Tourism in Antarctica is growing, with over 37,000 visitors in the 2009-2010 seasons, posing threats through sea ice destruction, cruise ship crashes, and environmental disruption from tourist activities
• The International Whaling Commission (IWC) enforces regulations on its 89 member states regarding whaling in the Southern Ocean (Antarctica)
• Roles of the IWC include setting catch limits, working with the Scientific Committee, coordinating conservation work, and providing funds for research and conservation
• The IWC introduced a Whaling Moratorium in 1982, created the Revised Management Procedure, established a Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, and enforces the International Observer Scheme
• There are criticisms of the IWC, including member states freely choosing to be in the IWC, countries objecting/not abiding by regulations, and exploiting loopholes in regulations
• The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) works to protect Antarctica through global governance
• The Antarctic Treaty states Antarctica should only be used for peaceful means and scientific research, among other regulations
• The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty bans all activities relating to mineral resources and established the Committee for Environmental Protection
• The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources protects marine life populations, especially krill
• The Commission on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources was established within the convention to manage fisheries and other issues
• ASOC was formed to prevent mineral exploitation in Antarctica and was granted observer status in 1991
• ASOC focuses on environmental protection, marine protected areas, wildlife conservation, krill conservation, climate change, and Antarctic governance
• Charities like Greenpeace and WWF collect independent data, report on issues, create petitions, and campaign for change to enhance the protection of Antarctica
• The United Nations (UN) was the first post-war IGO to be established
• The overall aim of the UN is to maintain international peace and security
• The UN has 193 global members
• The UN acts as a form of global governance through its several organisations
• General Assembly:

  • All 193 members are part of the general assembly, making it an organisation of universal representation
  • The aim of the general assembly is to discuss and debate issues of peace and security
• Security Council:

  • Consists of 15 members, 5 permanent
  • Solves threats to peace by having each member vote
  • Can deliver economic sanctions and other means to resolve issues
• International Court of Justice:

  • Settles legal disputes and international law breaks that are submitted by member states
  • The aim of the court is to maintain peace between states and to offer legal advice
• UNESCO (Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation):

  • Aims to maintain peace through education, science, and culture
  • Stands up for the freedom of expression
• UN Peacekeeping:

  • Aims to bring peace to places of disruption and post-conflict
  • Peacekeeping forces are sent into areas of instability with the aim to restore stability and order
• The UN promotes economic, social, and environmental growth through the creation of international treaties and goals
• Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals are examples of UN declarations that promote stability and growth
• UN sanctions allow inequalities and injustices to be resolved by punishing countries that do not abide by international laws
• Organizations like UN Watch have been created to monitor the effectiveness of the UN
• The UN creates policies and legislation to protect social rights, such as the Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN General Assembly
• The International Court of Justice protects social rights by punishing those who commit crimes against humanity
• The UN has been accused of creating inequalities through bias against countries, especially in conflict, with severe criticism towards Israel in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict