Antarctica is the most southern continent in the world, containing the South Pole and stretching an area of 14 million km^2
The majority of Antarctica is covered in ice, making it the largest ice sheet in the world and holding 90% of all of the Earth’s surface freshwater
Coastal areas of Antarctica receive the most precipitation, averaging around 400 mm - 600 mm+ a year
Inland Antarctica has barely any precipitation, with some places averaging under 50 mm of precipitation a year
The ecosystem in Antarctica is not very biodiverse, with only hardy plants such as mosses and lichen able to grow, and hardly any land animals except for insects
The Southern Ocean is diverse in marine life, with lots of fish, krill, penguins, seals, and whales
Antarctica is rich in natural resources like fossil fuels and minerals, with large reserves of oil located in the Southern Ocean and iron ore deposits in the Transantarctic Mountains
Antarctica is vulnerable due to the demand for resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and fish, and its climate is fragile and highly adapted to the extreme environment
Major threats to Antarctica include climate change, fishing and whaling, mineral/resource exploitation, and tourism and scientific research
Unsustainable fishing in Antarctica disrupts the food chain, with overfishing of krill being a major concern
Whaling and sealing are also significant threats to the Antarctic ecosystem, with past events still impacting whale populations today
Tourism in Antarctica is growing, with over 37,000 visitors in the 2009-2010 seasons, posing threats through sea ice destruction, cruise ship crashes, and environmental disruption from tourist activities
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) enforces regulations on its 89 member states regarding whaling in the Southern Ocean (Antarctica)
Roles of the IWC include setting catch limits, working with the Scientific Committee, coordinating conservation work, and providing funds for research and conservation
The IWC introduced a Whaling Moratorium in 1982, created the Revised Management Procedure, established a Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, and enforces the International Observer Scheme
There are criticisms of the IWC, including member states freely choosing to be in the IWC, countries objecting/not abiding by regulations, and exploiting loopholes in regulations
The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) works to protect Antarctica through global governance
The Antarctic Treaty states Antarctica should only be used for peaceful means and scientific research, among other regulations
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty bans all activities relating to mineral resources and established the Committee for Environmental Protection
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources protects marine life populations, especially krill
The Commission on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources was established within the convention to manage fisheries and other issues
ASOC was formed to prevent mineral exploitation in Antarctica and was granted observer status in 1991
ASOC focuses on environmental protection, marine protected areas, wildlife conservation, krill conservation, climate change, and Antarctic governance
Charities like Greenpeace and WWF collect independent data, report on issues, create petitions, and campaign for change to enhance the protection of Antarctica
The United Nations (UN) was the first post-war IGO to be established
The overall aim of the UN is to maintain international peace and security
The UN has 193 global members
The UN acts as a form of global governance through its several organisations
General Assembly:
All 193 members are part of the general assembly, making it an organisation of universal representation
The aim of the general assembly is to discuss and debate issues of peace and security
Security Council:
Consists of 15 members, 5 permanent
Solves threats to peace by having each member vote
Can deliver economic sanctions and other means to resolve issues
International Court of Justice:
Settles legal disputes and international law breaks that are submitted by member states
The aim of the court is to maintain peace between states and to offer legal advice
UNESCO (Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation):
Aims to maintain peace through education, science, and culture
Stands up for the freedom of expression
UN Peacekeeping:
Aims to bring peace to places of disruption and post-conflict
Peacekeeping forces are sent into areas of instability with the aim to restore stability and order
The UN promotes economic, social, and environmental growth through the creation of international treaties and goals
Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals are examples of UN declarations that promote stability and growth
UN sanctions allow inequalities and injustices to be resolved by punishing countries that do not abide by international laws
Organizations like UN Watch have been created to monitor the effectiveness of the UN
The UN creates policies and legislation to protect social rights, such as the Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN General Assembly
The International Court of Justice protects social rights by punishing those who commit crimes against humanity
The UN has been accused of creating inequalities through bias against countries, especially in conflict, with severe criticism towards Israel in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict