Sustaining Ecosystems

• Antarctic Treaty


  Global example of sustainable management in either the Antarctic or the Arctic
• What is the Antarctic Treaty?

  1. Agreement made by 12 countries set up in 1959 to protect Antarctic (south pole) for peace and scientific research only

  2. Now signed by 53 countries

  3. Established the Environmental Protocol (1998) which came up with ways to manage Antarctica
• Ways to manage Antarctica under the Environmental Protocol

  • No mineral exploitation allowed (no mining)
  • Plants and animals must be protected
  • Areas of the environment must be protected
  • Rules for waste disposal
  • Regulations for release of sewage from ships
  • Activities must be assessed before going ahead
• Cannot introduce non-native species—avoid disturbing ecosystems
• Visits have to wear disinfected over boots when they land
• Restrictions on eating and drinking on land
• Only 100 visitors are allowed to land at any time
• Ships with more than 500 tourists cannot stop
• Cannot be within 10m of a penguin
• No major issues
• Some people think it should be extended to the Southern Ocean around it


  To protect marine life
• Though some tourists may not follow rules of distance between wildlife


  Most tourists are keen to be educated and are keen to look after Antarctica
• Cruise ships offer educational presentations
• Effectiveness


  Assess, Evaluate, Describe, justify
• What is being done in Costa Rica to manage ecosystems sustainably

  • National parks and nature reserves (28 national parks, 24% of country protected)
  • Wildlife corridors to help animals migrate
  • Agroforestry - growing crops and forests together
  • Selective logging - only older, larger trees
  • Afforestation - replanting forests
  • Monitoring using satellite imagery and GIS to tackle illegal activity
  • Ecotourism - sustainable tourism
• Ecotourism


  • Does not damage natural environment
  • Activities are low impact (e.g. birdwatching, canopy exploration, white water rafting)
  • Small scale
  • Consults with local communities
  • Makes improvements to infrastructure that benefits locals (e.g. roads, hospitals)
• Climate change legislation


  Seeks to reduce loss of ice caps
• Development issues for LIDCs


  Need to sell their raw materials to progress up the Rostow Model
• Sustainable management of tropical rainforests in Costa Rica has been successful, with deforestation rate reduced to almost zero since 1985. Costa Rica is now a desirable holiday destination selling itself as a natural/pristine environment, and tourism is an important source of income and a viable alternative to other options of TRF exploitation.
• What is being done in the Antarctic under the Antarctic Treaty

  • Agreement made between 12 countries in 1959
  • Environmental Protocol of 1998 - no mining, conservation & management of waste
  • No military activity
  • No territorial claims recognised
• Sustainable management in the Antarctic

  • EIAs must be completed for activities
  • Tourism is limited - only 100 visitors in one area at one time and no big cruise ships
  • Waste must be removed
  • No sewage discharged to sea
• The Antarctic Treaty has been successful, with no major objections. Scientific discoveries have made a big contribution to our understanding of climate change, especially depletion of the ozone layer. There is a suggestion of using the Antarctic Treaty as a basis for a similar treaty in the Arctic, although there are differences such as existing mining and populations of indigenous people in the Arctic.
• What is being done for sustainable whaling in the Arctic (Clyde River, Canada)


  • One of two deep water troughs rich in zooplankton used by bowhead whales in their migration through the Arctic
  • Marine Wildlife Area set up in 2008 as sanctuary for protection of whales, also protects other arctic species
  • 1000 local Inuit permitted to hunt whales in small numbers
• Sustainable whaling in the Arctic

  • Ecosystem is protected so food chain can flourish supporting all species
  • Small scale removal/hunting of whales by Inuits does not impact on ecosystem because it is able to recover
  • Traditions preserved including bone carving (social sustainability)
• Sustainable whaling in the Arctic has been successful, with bowhead whale populations remaining healthy.
• Ecosystem


  A system in which organisms interact with each other and with their environment
• Ecosystem components


  • Abiotic (non-living, such as air, water, heat, rock)
  • Biotic (living, such as plants, insects, and animals)
• Flora


  Plant life occurring in a particular region or time
• Fauna


  Animal life of any particular region or time
• Food chain


  Shows only one species at a particular level from where energy is transferred up to the next
• Biome


  A large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal groups, which are adapted to that particular environment
• Biomes


  • Coniferous forest
  • Deciduous forest
  • Tropical rainforests
  • Tundra
  • Temperate grasslands
  • Tropical grasslands
  • Hot deserts
• The most productive biomes – which have the greatest biomass- grow in climates that are hot and wet
• Biome characteristics

  • Location
  • Temperature
  • Rainfall
  • Flora
  • Fauna
• Tropical rainforest


  Centred along the Equator, hot all year (25-30°C), very high rainfall (over 200mm/year), tall trees forming a canopy; wide variety of species, greatest range of different animal species, most live in canopy layer
• Tropical grasslands


  Between latitudes 5°- 30° north & south of Equator, warm all year (20-30°C), wet + dry season (500-1500mm/year), grasslands with widely spaced trees, large hoofed herbivores and carnivores dominate
• Hot desert


  Found along the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, hot by day (over 30°C), cold by night, very low rainfall (below 300mm/year), lack of plants and few species; adapted to drought, many animals are small and nocturnal: except for the camel
• Temperate forest


  Between latitudes 40°- 60° north of Equator, warm summers + mild winters (5-20°C), variable rainfall (500-1500m /year), mainly deciduous trees; a variety of species, animals adapt to colder and warmer climates, some migrate
• Tundra


  Far Latitudes of 65° north and south of Equator, cold winter + cool summers (below 10°C), low rainfall (below 500mm/ year), small plants grow close to the ground and only in summer, low number of species, most animals found along coast
• Coral reefs


  Found within 30° north – south of Equator in tropical waters, warm water all year round with temperatures of 18°C, wet + dry seasons, small range of plant life which includes algae and sea grasses that shelters reef animals, dominated by polyps and a diverse range of fish species