1.2b training methods

• principles of training

  the rules that underpin training programme design to ensure safe and effective fitness adaptation (moderation, reversibility, specificity, overload, progression and variance)
• principles of training- specificity

  training should be relevant and appropriate for the individual sport, energy system, muscle fibre type and movement pattern
• principles of training- progression

  training demand should gradually increase over time to ensure the performer adapts and improves
• principles of training- overload

  training intensity should be above the performer's comfort zone to place a stress on the body to force an adaptation. four components can be manipulated to achieve overload, referred to as the FIIT principle
• FIIT principle

  component parts of the principle of overload

  • frequency- how many sessions per week are performed
  • intensity- how hard the sessions are
  • time- how long the sessions, intervals, sets are
  • type- training method used
• principles of training- variance

  training includes a range of exercises and activities to prevent boredom, maintain motivation and limit overuse injuries
• principles of training- moderation

  training must be appropriate for the performer to adapt while maintaining a healthy, balanced lifestyle:

  • if training is too intense and frequent, training quality will decrease and overuse injuries and burnout can occur
  • if training does not overload, there may be no adaptation or improvement
• principles of training- reversibility

  training must be maintained to prevent deterioration in performance. through injury or off-season, losses in aerobic capacity are rapid and at a slower rate, strength will decrease too
• training programmes: testing

  training intensity will be set based upon results from an appropriate evaluation test- for example, the multi-stage fitness test for aerobic capacity. progression can also be monitored by performing mid training programme and post programme tests
• training programmes- warm up

  training sessions must begin with a warm up. pulse raising activity and mobility exercises will prepare the body for exercise and reduce the risk of injury
• training programmes- cool down

  training sessions must end with a cool down. pulse-lowering activity and stretching will prepare the body for rest and reduces the risk of delayed onset muscle soreness
• adaptation

  a physiological change in response to training- for example, increased red blood cell production
• periodisation

  periodisation is the organised division of training into specific blocks. each training block is known as a cycle and has a specific goal and time frame. the aim of periodisation is to ensure:

  • a performer reaches their physiological peak at the right time
  • they avoid injury and burnout
  • training is structured to give realistic and achievable goals
• 1. macrocycle

  the macro-cycle is a long-term training plan typically over a one year period. this aims to achieve a long-term goa, such as personal best at national championships. a macro-cycle is broken up into several meso-cycles
• 2. meso-cycle

  the meso-cycle is a mid-term training plan over 4-16 weeks depending on the phase of the performer is in. this aims to achieve a mid-term goal, such as maintaining general fitness over a transition phase. each meso-cycle is broken down into several micro-cycles
• 3. micro-cycle

  the micro-cycle is a short-term training plan over 1-3 weeks. this aims to achieve a short-term goal, such as perfecting the sprint start technique. each micro-cycle is split up into a number of sessions, each focusing on a specific unit, such as skill based practices or flexibility training
• phases

  the design of each meso-cycle will depend in the phase of training a performer is in within their year. there are three main seasons within the periodised year:

  1. preparatory phase
  2. competitive phase
  3. transition phase
• preparatory phase

  known as the "off-season and pre-season", the time of year when general, sports specific and skill based fitness is the focus

  1. prep phase 1- during the off season, general conditioning will be undertaken to develop a base to build on during pre-season. this will consist of aerobic training, mobility training and strength and conditioning
  2. prep phase 2- during the pre season, progressive overload is the focus and the intensity of training is increased. as competition nears, total training volume reduces and competition specific training will take over
• competitive phase

  comp season- time of year to maintain fitness developed in the prep phases, avoid injury and focus on strategies and tactics

  1. comp phase 3: training load reduces, periods of lower intensity and rest days to maintain fitness while remaining injury free. strategies, tactics and game-play focus, but endurance players still need high intensity to be competition ready
  2. comp phase 4: tapering to ensure peak performance. 2-3 weeks before training load is gradually reduced and relief increased for full recovery and fuel stores. intensity is maintained but volume decreases by 1/3
• transition phase

  transition season- this is the time of year for active and rest and recuperation. low-intensity aerobic work, such as swimming or cycling, will be completes while receiving treatment for injuries. as the preparatory phase approaches, training load will gradually increase again and the new year will commence
• tapering

  maintaining the intensity but decreasing the volume of training by one third to prepare for competition
• aerobic capacity

  the ability of the body to inspire, transport and utilise oxygen to perform sustained periods of aerobic activity. it is dependent on the efficiency of the respiratory, cardiovascular and muscular systems
• VO2 max

  maximum volume of oxygen inspired, transported and utilised per minute during exhaustive exercise
• how physiological make up affects VO2 max

  greater efficiency of the cardio-respiratory system and muscle cells to inspire, transport and utilise oxygen, the higher the VO2 max

  • strong respiratory muscles and large lung capacities can inspire more air. a large and strong left ventricle will increase SV and CO, raising blood flow. increased haemoglobin content increases oxygen available for aerobic energy production
  • capillarisation increases surface area for gaseous exchange. high percentage of slow oxidative muscle fibres rich in myoglobin and mitochondria produce more energy aerobically
• how age affects VO2 max

  from the early 20s, VO2 mac declines approximately 1% every year

  • lost elasticity in the heart, blood vessel and lung tissue walls with age reduce the efficiency to inspire and transport oxygen
• how gender effects VO2 max

  females tend to have a 15-30% lower VO2 max than males from the same group

  • females have a higher percentage of body fat, smaller lung volumes, SV and CO during maximal work and lower haemoglobin levels, reducing the efficiency to inspire and transport oxygen for aerobic energy production
• how training effects VO2 max

  aerobic training will increase VO2 max by 10-20%. in ageing performers aerobic training will maintain or reduce any decline in VO2 max

  • aerobic training causes long term adaptations, such as increased strength of respiratory muscles, levels of haemoglobin, myoglobin and mitochondria, which increases the efficiency to inspire, transport and utilise oxygen
• capillarisation

  the formation and development of a network of capillaries to a part of the body, increased through aerobic training
• how does direct gas analysis measure VO2 max

  subject performs continuous exercise at progressive intensities to exhaustion. expired air is captured by a mask with a tube connected to a flow meter and gas analyser. the relative concentrations of O2 and CO2 in expired air to inspired air are measured. results can be graphed against intensity and using a simple calculation VO2 max can be determined
• advantages of direct gas analysis

  • direct objective measurement of VO2 max
  • valid, accurate and reliable measure
  • test performed during different exercises (e.g., running, cycling, rowing), including laboratory and field settings
• disadvantages of direct gas analysis

  • maximal test to exhaustion
  • cannot be used with the elderly or those with health conditions
  • access to specialist equipment is required
• how is the 12 minute cooper run used to measure VO2 max

  subject performs continuous running to achieve a maximum distance within 12 minutes. usually performed on a 400m running track with cones placed at intervals. time left per lap is called to the performer. at the end of the 12 minutes, the test ends and the total distance is recorded. this is a maximum intensity test which using a simple calculation can predict VO2 max
• advantages of the 12 minute cooper run

  • large groups can perform the test at the same time in a field based setting
  • a subject can administer their own test
  • simple and cheap equipment needed
  • published tables of normative data and simple VO2 max calculation
• disadvantages of 12 minute cooper run

  • prediction of VO2 max, not a measurement
  • maximal test to exhaustion limited by subject motivation
  • cannot be used by the elderly or those with health conditions
  • test is not sports specific (E.g., rowers or cyclists may be at disadvantage)
• how does the queens college step test measure VO2 max

  subject performs continuous stepping on and off a box 41.3cm high for a period of three minutes. HR is taken for 5 seconds after completing the test for 15 seconds. HR recovery is used to predict VO2 max with a simple equation
• advantages of queens college step test

  • sub-maximal test
  • simple and cheap equipment required
  • HR easily monitored
  • published tables of normative data and simple VO2 max calculation
• disadvantages of queens college step test

  • prediction of VO2 max, not a measurement
  • HR recovery will be affected by prior exercise, food and fluid intake
  • test is not sport specific (e.g., rowers or cyclists may be at a disadvantage)
  • step height may disadvantage shorter subjects
• how does the multi-stage fitness test measure VO2 max

  subject performs a continuous 20m shuttle run test at progressive intensities to exhaustion. each 20m shuttle will be timed to an audio cue. the test is over when the subject cannot complete the shuttle in the allotted time. a level and a shuttle number will be given which predicts VO2 max from a standardised comparison table
• advantages of the multi-stage fitness test

  • large groups can perform the test at the same time
  • only simple and cheap equipment needed
  • published tables of VO2 max equivalents
• disadvantages of the multi-stage fitness test

  • prediction of VO2 max not a measurement
  • maximal test to exhaustion limited by motivation
  • cannot be used by the elderly or those with health conditions
  • test is not sports specific (e.g., cyclists or rowers may be at a disadvantage)