Psychopathology

• Beck's negative triad


  According to Beck, sufferers of depression experience cognitive distortions. People draw irrational conclusions about themselves, the world and their future
• Behavioural explanations: phobias


  They viewed phobias as learned behaviour, acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
• Behavioural treatments: phobias


  These are based on the assumptions that if a behaviour (phobia) is learned, then it can also be unlearned. Behavioural treatment, such as systematic desensitisation and flooding are based on classical conditioning and the concept of extinction
• Biological explanations: OCD


  They suggest that an individual's genes and/or brain functioning makes them vulnerable to developing this disorder
• Biological treatments: OCD


  These are based on the assumption that drugs can be used to rebalance neurochemical imbalances in sufferers. E.g., low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD, SSRI's have been used to try to address this imbalance
• Classical conditioning: phobias


  The process of classical conditioning explains how we acquire phobias, we learn to associate something we do not fear (neutral stimulus), with something that triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus). After an association has formed, the conditioned stimulus causes a response of fear (conditioned response) and so a phobia is developed
• Characteristics of depression


  behavioural characteristics include loss of energy, changes in sleep and changes in appetite. emotional characteristics included low mood, feelings of sadness and feelings of worthlessness. cognitive characteristics include dwelling on the negatives, poor concentration, absolutist thinking
• Characteristics of OCD


  behavioural characteristics include compulsions are repetitive, reduce anxiety and avoidance. emotional characteristics include anxiety and distress, accompanying distress and guilt and disgust. cognitive characteristics include obsessive thoughts, cognitive coping strategies and insight into excessive anxiety
• Characteristics of phobias


  behavioural characteristics include panic, avoidance and endurance. emotional characteristics include anxiety, fear and an unrealistic emotional response. cognitive characteristics include selective attention to the phobic stimulus, irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions
• Cognitive explanations: Depression


  This suggests that faulty thinking/ thought processes make a person vulnerable to depression. People with depression often show cognitive distortions, faulty information processing and negative thinking
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

  Based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques
• CBT


  • Two strands based on Beck and Ellis' theories
  • Starts with an initial assessment where the patient and therapist identify the patient's problems
  • The patient and therapist agree on set goals
  • Aims to identify the negative and irrational thoughts
• Beck's CBT


  Helps the patient to identify negative thoughts in relation to themselves, their world and their future, using the negative triad
• Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT)


  Involves techniques such as empirical argument and logical argument
• CBT


  1. Initial assessment

  2. Identify patient's problems

  3. Set goals

  4. Identify negative and irrational thoughts

  5. Challenge irrational thoughts
• Cognitive treatments: depression


  These are based on the assumption that faulty thinking/ thought processes make a person vulnerable to depression. Therefore, cognitive treatments such as CBT and REBT aim to challenge irrational thoughts and replace them with more rational ones
• Definitions of abnormality


  These are different methods of diagnosing and defining psychological illness. This includes statistical infrequency, deviation from ideal mental health, deviation from social norms and failure to function adequately
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  This is a definition of abnormality which suggests that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular characteristics. Jahoda proposed six characteristics of mental health, including having a positive view of yourself and being resistant to stress
• Deviation from social norms


  This is a definition of abnormality where behaviour is seen as abnormal if it violates unwritten rules about what is acceptable in society
• Drug therapies: OCD

  These are based on the assumption that drugs can cure a neurochemical imbalance which is seen as the cause of OCD. The two types of drugs used to treat OCD are SSRI's (antidepressants) which increase the level of serotonin in the synapse allowing more serotonin being received by the receiving cell. Anti-anxiety drugs are also used, which work to enhance the action of the neurotransmitter GABA. This tells neurons in the brain to 'slow down' and 'stop firing'. In turn this reduces the anxiety experienced as a result of obsessive thoughts
• Ellis's ABC model 


  Ellis proposed this three step model to explain how irrational thoughts lead to depression. A stands for activating event, B stands for beliefs and C stands for consequences
• Failure to function adequately


  This is a definition of abnormality where a person is considered abnormal is they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society
• Fear hierarchy 


  This is a process used in systematic desensitisation. The client and therapist work together to develop the hierarchy, where they rank a list of situations relevant to the phobic stimulus from least to most terrifying. The individual is taught relaxation techniques and is then exposed to each situation in the hierarchy while trying to remain relaxed
• Flooding


  This is a behavioural therapy for phobias that is based on the idea of extinction. A person is exposed to their most frightening situation immediately. With flooding, a person is unable to avoid their phobia and through continuous exposure, anxiety levels decrease
• Genetic explanations: OCD


  These suggest that individuals inherit specific genes that cause OCD. The two genes linked to OCD are the COMT and SERT genes. The SERT gene (5-HTT) affects the transport of serotonin, which is associated with OCD. COMT is responsible for clearing dopamine from synapses and low activity of the COMT gene is associated with OCD. OCD is thought to be polygenic which means that several genes are involved
• Irrational thoughts


  These are a pattern of thinking that are illogical, distort reality and prevent you from reaching your goal. They lead to unhealthy emotions and self-defeating behaviour. Ellis uses the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state
• Neural explanations: OCD 


  These focus on neurotransmitters and brain structures. The neurotransmitter serotonin is believed to play a role in OCD. Lower levels of serotonin are associated with OCD. The basal ganglia is involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement. Patients who suffer head injuries in this region often develop OCD symptoms following their recovery
• Operant conditioning: Phobias


  According to operant conditioning, phobias can be negatively reinforced. This is where behaviours are strengthened because an unpleasant consequence is removed. This avoidance reduces the person's feelings of anxiety and negatively reinforces their behaviour
• Relaxation 


  This is one of the processes involved in systematic desensitisation, where the client and therapist work together to develop a fear hierarchy before the client is taught relaxation techniques. The idea is that relaxation should overtake the fear (reciprocal inhibition)
• Statistical infrequency


  This is a definition of abnormality where a behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon or not seen very often in society
• Systematic desensitisation


  This uses counter-conditioning to unlearn a maladaptive response to a situation/ object, by eliciting another response. There are three components linked to systematic desensitisation: fear hierarchy, relaxation training and reciprocal inhibition
• Two-process model


  Phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning