Sociolinguistics

• Language change from above

  Sporadic change inflicted upon groups of people consciously and often involves issues of prestige
• Upper classes


  Use new linguistic forms to differentiate themselves from the lower classes
• Lower classes


  Use new linguistic forms to sound more educated and similar to the upper class
• Classic example of change from above

  • Importation of '*r*-fulness' to New York City English as observed by Labov in the mid 1960s
• Change from above


  1. NYC English was generally *r*-less from 18th to early 20th century

  2. By mid 20th century, norms of General American English, including *r*-fullness, began to influence New Yorkers' speech

  3. New, prestigious *r*-full variant began to compete with older (and increasingly stigmatized) *r*-less variant

  4. Slowly spreading and advancing through the community
• Language change from below

  Systemic and unconscious language change that originates from within the community, often among speakers with less social power or prestige
• Changes from below


  • Gradually percolate through the community, driven by factors such as convenience, ease of pronunciation, or exposure to different speech patterns
  • Unlike changes from above, they tend to emerge naturally and spread through everyday usage
• Changes from below


  • Changes in the pronunciation of vowels
  • New words or phrases emerging within often disadvantaged groups, such as African American or queer communities
• Slang terms from Black and queer communities


  • lit
  • slay
  • cunt
• Speech styles


  Formal and informal modes of expression, similar to selecting appropriate attire for events
• Formal settings


  More attention to articulation, mirroring careful adherence to dress codes
• Informal settings


  Speech tends to be more relaxed, like wearing more comfortable clothes
• Overt prestige


  Individuals consciously adopt speech patterns associated with higher social standing, like adjusting manner of dress to conform to a particular group
• Covert prestige


  Individuals intentionally deviate from standard speech norms, perhaps by altering pronunciation or dropping consonants, to align with a different social group, the same as dressing to spend time with certain groups
• Speech accommodation


  Interplay between speakers and listeners, involving both convergence and divergence
• Convergence


  Adopting speech patterns similar to those of conversation partners, bridging social divides, like dressing down or up from your normal attire
• Divergence


  Employing linguistic features distinct from those of counterparts, highlighting differences and potentially adding emphasis to communication, similar to dressing to shock or surprise those not accustomed to such a way of dressing