Anatomy 3

• Axial skeleton


  Bones of the skull, neck and trunk
• Appendicular skeleton


  Bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, bones of the lower limbs
• Bones of the upper limbs: 1 long bone in arm - humerus, 2 long bones in forearm - radius and ulna, Hand: carpal bones → metacarpals → phalanges
• Bones of the lower limbs: 1 long bone in thigh - femur, 2 long bones in leg - tibia and fibula, Foot: tarsal bones → metatarsals → phalanges
• Bony feature


  Functional hole, bump or groove found on bone which develops during bone growth
• Tuberosity


  Rough area of bone where muscles attach e.g. ischial tuberosity
• Bone


  Hard, connective tissue
• Cartilage


  Less rigid than bone, located where mobility is required - articulations
• Types of joints


  • Synovial
  • Cartilaginous
  • Fibrous
• Each joint is a compromise between mobility and stability - the more mobile a joint, the more easily it is dislocated</b>
• Joints have an excellent sensory nerve supply
• Skeletal muscle


  Usually found deep to deep fascia, usually two points of attachment to bone - 'origin' (usually most proximal part) and 'insertion' on the other side, during contraction the origin and insertion are moved closer together
• Tendon


  Attach muscle (usually) to bone
• Aponeurosis


  Flattened tendon, most commonly associated with flat muscles, attach muscle to soft tissue
• Biceps brachii


  • Long head originates from the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, short head originates from the coracoid process of the scapula, both heads insert distally into the radial tuberosity and the fascia of the forearm via the bicipital aponeurosis
  • Innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve
  • Supinates the forearm and flexes the shoulder and elbow joint
• Deltoid muscle


  • Originates from the lateral third of the clavicle, the acromion and the spine of the scapula, attaches to the deltoid tuberosity on the lateral aspect of the humerus
  • Innervated by the axillary nerve
  • Anterior fibres flex and medially rotate the shoulder, posterior fibres extend and laterally rotate the shoulder, middle fibres are the major abductor of the arm
• Reflex


  Protective and automatic
• Stretch reflex - reflex arc


  1. Sensory nerve (muscle) detects stretch and tells spinal cord

  2. Motor nerve from spinal cord passes message to contract

  3. Neuromuscular junction - synapse where motor nerve communicates with skeletal muscle
• Deep tendon reflexes


  Biceps jerk, triceps jerk, knee jerk and ankle jerk reflexes, hammer applies stretch → stretch reflex (if normal)
• Flexion withdrawal reflex


  Touch something potentially damaging, sudden flexion to withdraw from the danger
• Types of muscle damage

  • Muscle strain
  • Paralysis
  • Spasticity
  • Atrophy
  • Hypertrophy
• Anterior


  Nearer to the front of the body
• Posterior


  Nearer to the back of the body
• Medial


  Nearer to the midline
• Lateral


  Further from the midline
• Superior/cranial


  Nearer to the top of the head
• Inferior/caudal


  Nearer to the soles of the feet
• Proximal


  Nearer to the attachment of the limb from the body
• Distal


  Further from the attachment of the limb to the body
• Superficial


  Nearer to the surface of the body
• Deep


  Further from the surface of the body
• External


  Further from the centre of body/organ
• Internal


  Nearer to the centre of the body/organ
• Major


  Relatively larger structures with the same names
• Minor


  Relatively smaller structures with the same names
• Terms of laterality


  • Unilateral
  • Bilateral
  • Midline
  • Ipsilateral
  • Contralateral
• Terms of movement


  • Flexion
  • Extension
  • Abduction
  • Adduction
  • Internal (medial) rotation
  • External (lateral) rotation
  • Circumduction
• Dorsiflexion


  Dorsal surface of the foot moves superiorly
• Plantar flexion


  Plantar surface of the foot moves inferiorly
• Eversion


  Sole of the foot rotates away from the median plane such that the sole faces laterally