Social and Economic Issues with Urbanisation

• Economic Inequality = the difference between levels of living standards, income etc. across the whole economic distruvution
• Cultural Diversity = The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society
• Social Segregation = When groups of people live apart from the larger population due to factors such as wealth, ethnicity, religion or age
• Reasons for the wealthy and poor concentrating spatially:

  • Housing = Built with particular markets in mind, requirements on 'affordable housing' affect housing value, but wealthier groups can pay premium prices for houses away from poor areas
  • Changing environments = Houses that were built for large families in Georgian and Victorian times are converted in houses of multiple occupation, so lower income people and students move in
  • Ethnic dimension = Ethnic groups originally come to the country as immigrants, they are only able to afford cheap rented housing, causing groupings
• The 1980s 'right to buy' legislation transformed many council estates, as houses were bought and improved
• Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) is a UK government qualitative study measuign overall deprivation in England neighbourhoods
• IMD 2019 report reveals concentrations of deprivations is:

  • large urban conurbations
  • areas that have large manufacturing industry and/or mining sectors
  • coastal towns
  • east London
• Urban Social Exclusion = Problems faced by residents in areas of multiple deprivation. People are excluded from full participation in society by their social and physical circumstances e.g. no jobs due to poor education
• Inner city areas have traditionally been the most deprived, characterised by a decline caused by de-industrialisation in the second half of the twentieth century
• Strategies to reduce poverty and inequality:

  • Enforcing a lviign wage or an urban subsidy e.g. China minimum wage grown with Shanghai having highest at $358 per month
  • Provision of schools = schooling beyond primary school lifts millions out of poverty
  • Supporting low skilled workers who wan to develop
  • Access to affordable housing e.g. London Living Rent scheme
  • Greater provision of public transport e.g. West Yorkshire £2 limit
  • Minimum environmental standards
• Culture can refer to nationality, race, age and traditions; key influence from immigration
• Cities like London, New York and Amsterdam have received migrants from all over the world and this has led to the creation of multicultural urban societies
• The term diaspora is commonly used to describe a large group of people with similar heritage or homeland who have settled elsewhere in the world. In some global cities, these diasporas make up a larger proportion of the population than the indigenous residents
• Greater Cultural Diversity in Cities

  • Cities offer a greater range of employment opportunities
  • Cities are the first point of entry into the country for many immigrants
  • Cities tend to house earlier immigrant groups with the same ethnicity
  • Established cultural diversity in cities leads to religious centres
  • Urban populations are more tolerant
• Cultural diversity brings many benefits to urban societies. Common is the greater exposure to different foods, music, language and religion. Events such as the Notting Hill Carnival and Mela in Newcastle celebrate and share culture
• Issues Associated with Cultural Diversity

  • Can put pressure on stretched urban services, especially where language barriers exist
  • Variations in educational attainment have been noted and the authorities have to ensure all children have the same opportunities
  • Influxes of immigrants can cluster together and buy houses in affluent boroughs and make them inaccessible to even wealthy British people
• Social Segregation Based on Ethnicity

  • Some communities in Europe and North America remain isolated because they maintain language and belief
  • Local schools being dominated by one group lead others to feel left out
  • Term ghetto used to describe when an area of a city or population is made up of entirely one ethnicity
  • Often a result of self-segregation but can be a result of external factors
• Reasons for Ethnic Segregation in Cities = Self-Segregation

  • Migrants seek the support and securtiy of lviing near friends and relaties within a minority ethnic community
  • Provision of special facilities such as places of worship
  • Protection against racist attacks
  • Maintenance of culture, language and practices
• Reasons for Ethnic Segregation in Cities = External Factors

  • Migrants have been a source of cheap labour, forcing them into cheaper housing
  • Ethnic groups have been discriminated against in access to local authority housing
  • Hostility from majority population
• To tackle ethnic segregation, a policy of interculturalism has been promoted by some. This emphasises interaction and the exchange of ideas between different cultural groups