Urbanisation

• Urbanisation = The growth in the proportion of a country's population that live in urban environments compared to rural environments
• The United Nations estimated the world reached a tipping point in 2008, where more than half the population (3.3 billion people) lived in urban areas
• The process of urbanisation is unprecedented, but bears similarity to previous processes such as the change from a predominantly hunter-gather lifestyle to one of farming
• In the UK, the agricultural and industrial revolution in the late 18th century saw the beginning of urban population growth. In England, the population living in cities grew from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891
• As urbanisation has continued, improved public transport links follow and cities expand
• The process of urbanisation has also created opportunities for women that are often not available in rural areas in lower income countries. In urban areas, greater numbers of women are in paid employment or education - however pay gap still exists
• Between 1945 and 2014, the urban population of the world grew from an estimated 0.75 billion people to an estimated 3.9 billion
• In 1950, it was estimated that 29% of people lived in urban areas, rising to 49% in 2005, while in 2030 the figure could rise to 60%
• The average annual rate at which urbanisation occurred from 1945 to 2014 was 2.58%. When compared to the annual rate of population growth over the same period at 1.65%, we can see the world was urbanising rapidly compared to population growth
• The most urbanised regions of the world include North America (82%), Latin America and the Caribbean (80%) and Europe (73%).
• Asia has a low urban population, with 48% of the population living in urban areas, despite being home to 53% of the world's urban population
• Between 2014 and 2050, three countries are expected to account for 37% of the world's population growth: India, China and Nigeria
• Suburbanisation = When people move to the edge of rural areas, causing villages and towns to be engulfed into larger urban areas or agglomerations
• Pull factors from Urban Areas

  • Greater open spaces and a desire to live in a cleaner environment
  • Wider range of employment opportunities in suburban areas
  • Lower house prices compared to urban centre
• Push Factors from Urban Areas

  • Increasing traffic and pollution in the urban centre
  • Perception that the urban centre offers a lower quality of life than the suburbs
  • Desire to move away from industry
• Suburbanisation puts pressure on greenfield sites and surrounding wildlife, and the areas are predominantly residential, characterised by larger gardens and greater open spaces than found closer to the urban centres
• Suburbanisation is supported mostly by developments in local transport infrastructure
• Development in the London Underground led to suburbanisation and London expanded to include estates such as Wembley Park
• Suburbs = Areas on the edge of an urban area
• Counter-urbanisation = People moving out of an urban area into a rural area
• Demographic driving force in the UK for counterurbanisation is the ageing population and the desire to have a better quality of life outside of the city
• Motorways and rail services make commuting to cities easier so people can afford to live further afield. The growth in reliable internet services has increased people working from home
• New Towns Act of 1946 encouraged counter-urbanisation from major conurbations with the building of New Towns such as Milton Keynes and Basildon
• Driving forces of counter-urbanisation

  • Demographic
  • Social
  • Economic
• Urban Resurgence = People moving back into inner city areas
• Decline in inner city areas, such as the London Docklands, led to dereliction and a number of social, economic and environmental problems
• Key Problems in Inner Cities following decline

  • Environmental Problems = Pollution, vandalism, poorly built tower blocks, overcrowding
  • Economic Problems = Unemployment, poverty, low incomes, lack of space for new industry
  • Social Problems = Increased crime rates, falling birth rates, high concentrations of ethnic groups
• Urban Resurgence strategies:

  • Used to tackle decline in inner city areas
  • Improve housing conditions
  • Create new jobs and training opportunities
  • Encourage private sector investment
  • Enhance environment
  • Gentrification
• Gentrification = The renewal of an area leading to an influx in affluent people and a decrease in working class people
• Property Led Initiatives 1979-1991 - Thatcher

  • Private sector was given tax breaks and land purchasing rights so that they could lead regeneration
  • e.g. Urban Development Corporations in London Docklands
• Urban Development Corporations (London Docklands)

  • Boards made up of local people and local businesses, they were encourages to spend money on land and infrastructure to encourage private investments.
  • Strengths: Attracted new businesses to run-down areas. By mid 1990s they had attracted over £12 billion
  • Weaknesses: Didn't tackle social problems. Local people were less involved and in London they didn't benefit from any new jobs.
• Partnership Schemes 1991-1997 - Major

  • Focus was on local leadership and partnership between businesses, local communities, NGOs and local government.
  • Focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems within the city.
  • e.g. City Challenge in Hulme
• City Challenge (Hulme)

  • Cities had to compete for government regeneration grants, the cities with the 'best' schemes go the grant.
  • Formed partnerships between the private sectors, local governments and local communities
  • Strengths: Having to bid led to more successful schemes. Gave people and buildings equal value. Created over 53,000 job.
  • Weaknesses: Resources thinly spread. Areas with no funding had unsuccessful bids. Money was lost in unsuccessful bids
• Area Based Initiatives 1997-2010 - Blair

  • Focused on reducing inequality and improving social and economic indicators in the most deprived areas
  • Local authorities were set targets to meet for reducing deprivation.
  • New Deal for Communities in Devonport
• New Deal for Communities (Devonport)

  • Carry out 10 year strategic programmes designed to transform the 39 most deprived neighbiurhoods and improve the lives of those in them.
  • In Devonport, earn to learn schemes encourages people to stay in schools and achieve GCSEs
  • Strengths: Saw an improvement in 32 of 36 core indicators e.g. crime, education, health, housing. Evidence found that gaps with both national and local authority levels had narrowed.
  • Weaknesses: Greater change for places rather than people. Relatively little net change for education and unemployment.
• Gentrification 2010-Now (Conservative party)

  • State-led gentrification projects are forcing working class people out of their homes.
  • Devaluation of power to local governments such as the Mayor f West Yorkshire.
  • Regeneration of the Heygate Estate
• Regeneration of the Heygate Estate

  • Built initially in the 1970s as a council estate
  • Destroyed in 2007 by Lend Lease, who bought the estate off the council for £50 million
  • Lend Lease spent £44 million rehoming the council tennants, in boroughs as far as Slough
  • Displaces 3000 council tennants
• Megacity = Metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people
• In 1950, there were only two megacities in the world, New York and Tokyo. By 1990, there were ten megacities in the world, home to some 153 million people
• In 2000, 75% of megacities were in the developing world