Neuroscience

• Briefly explain what is by the 'localisation hypothesis' when referring to brain function

  The idea that it's possible to find specific areas of the brain that control specific cognitive functions
• Describe 2 shortcomings linked to the localisation hypothesis (4)

  Neural redundancy, complex behaviour depends on the function of many brain areas, some of which can compensate for the other if damaged (2). Each cognitive process is modulated by several other processes and structures. Thus, it isn't reasonable to argue that emotion or cognitive skill could be localised in a single place, or mediated by only one circuit
• 7 stages of brain development

  • cell birth
  • cell migration
  • cell differentiation
  • cell maturation
  • synaptogenesis
  • cell death
  • myelogenesis
• When alcohol molecules bind to GABA receptors

  They potentiate them, leaving the cell's chloride ion channels open for longer, allowing more negative charged ions to flow inside the cell, further inhibiting its activity
• Glutamate receptors

  When glutamate binds, it causes an influx of positively charged ions which increase the cell's activity
• Alcohol molecules

  Reduce glutamate channel permeability, which reduces the positive charge, thus decreasing the cell's activity
• Briefly describe how fMRI is typically used in research studies and outline methodological problems

  Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow and uses blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) contrast.

  Some brain regions are inhibitory. Critical tiny cluster of neurons may be too small to be detected
• 2 types of abnormal development related to the neural tube

  • Spina bifida - failure of the neural tube back end to close completely leading to spinal cord anomaly associated with serious motor problems
  • Anencephaly - when front end of neural tube doesn't close leading to a failure of the forebrain to develop and leads to the infants' death soon after birth
• Brain regions that are targeted in research evaluating the utility of deep brain stimulation for bipolar (i) and Tourettes (ii)

  i) subcallosal cingulate

  ii) centromedian parafascicular complex
• What brain scan is useful for looking at the structure of the brain?

  MRI/CAT/CT
• Which type of brain scan uses X-rays?

  CAT
• What brain imaging technique measures the magnetic fields produced by your brain's electrical currents?

  MEG
• What non-invasive brain imaging technique measures the electrical activity of the brain from electrodes on the scalp?

  EEG
• What brain regions are involved in moral reasoning and what are their functions?

  • Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) - utilitarian reasoning
  • Medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) - deontological response
  • Anterior cingulate (AC) - conflict resolution/judgment
• What brain region has been linked to Out of Body Experiences (OBE)


  Temporo-parietal junction
• What brain imaging approach produces a static image of the brain?

  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Describe a brain damage/lesion case study that influence the acceptance of the localization hypothesis

  Damage to Broca's area resulted in patients not being able to speak but can understand speech. Showing that Broca's area is responsible for speech production. Wernick, HM, Phineas Gage
• Explain neural redundancy and why this may present problems for the localization hypothesis

  Other brain regions can take over if an impairment is caused after damage. This contradicts the idea that a specific brain region controls a specific function
• Name a specific brain region which is activated in response to a range of different types of stimuli

  Amygdala can be activated in response to fear, erotic material, happy/sad faces etc.
• Is it reasonable to say fear is linked to one brain region?

  No - fear is complex and modulated by other processes such as attentiveness, expectation, mental set which are likely to be linked to other circuits in the brain
• Outline 2 problems with MRI

  • Some brain regions are inhibitory
  • Critical tiny cluster of neurons may be too small to be detected
• What is BCI

  A brain-computer interface (BCI) activates electronic or mechanical devices with brain activity (Birbaumer, 2006)
• Neurodivergent diseases linked with BCI use

  • Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) - neurodivergent disease that destroys large alpha motor neurons over a period of time that'll remove all voluntary motor functions
  • Locked in Syndrome (LIS) - rudimentary control of at least one muscle
  • Completely LIS (CLIS) - no control of any muscles
• What type of EEG brain response does Birbaumer utilise in their spelling BCI

  Slow cortical potentials
• 2 invasive approaches that have been used to collect brain activity for BCI use

  • implanted micro (or macro) electrodes
  • electrocoticography
• Advantages of invasive BCI over non-invasive BCI

  • Faster
  • Stays in place once set up
  • Large potential number of signals
• Advantages of non-invasive BCI over invasive BCI

  • No surgery
  • Cheaper
  • Less specialised to set up
• What's the main advantage of machine learning relative to the type of learning associated with Birbaumer spelling BCI?

  • Faster training/calibration period
  • less effortful for the user
• What procedure involved directly inserting electrodes into specific brain regions in prep for Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

  Steroetaxic surgery
• What is DBS?

  Deep Brain Stimulation - electrical stimulation of target brain regions to help relieve the symptoms of neurologic conditions
• Brain regions targeted for DBS when treating bipolar/unipolar depression

  • Subcallosal Cingulate (SCC)
  • Ventral Capsule (VC)
  • Ventral Striatum (VS)
  • Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
  • Medial Forbrain Bundle (MFB)
• Main brain regions targeted to treat Tourette syndrome

  • Centromedian parafascicular complex
  • Posteroventral Globus Pallidus internus (PGPi)
  • Globus Pallidus externa (GPe)
• Which conditions treated using DBS don't have FDA approval?

  • Tourette Syndrome
  • Unipolar/bipolar depression
• Problems with DBS

  • invasive
  • chance of intracranial bleeding
  • unknown long term benefits or effects
  • specific mechanism of action isn't clear
• What neuroscience method for recording brain activity is used for NF?

  EEG
• What psychological state where NF is used to treat is considered ''efficacious and specific''?

  ADHD
• Another psychological state which NF has been used to treat

  PTSD - individuals with PTSD have reduced connectivity between medial parietal cortex (MPC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
• What process can the brain recognise its pathways as a result of experience?

  Neuroplasticity
• What are the standards used to asses research aimed at evaluating the efficacy of NF?

  Guidelines for evaluation of clinical efficacy of psychophysiological interventions (La Vaque et al., 2002)

  • Level 1 - not empirically supported
  • Level 2 - possible efficacious
  • Level 3 - probably efficacious
  • Level 4 - efficacious
  • Level 5 - efficacious and specific
• The ventriloquist is an example of how?

  Vision influences spatial location of sound