Key Terms

• Conflict theory


  A theory that views society as made up of groups which have conflicting interests, such as the Marxist view that society is divided into two opposed classes
• Consensus theory


  In contrast to conflict theories, perspectives such as functionalism see society as essentially harmonious
• Culture


  Includes the norms, values and behaviours that are shared by a social group or society that are transmitted across generations through the socialisation process
• Globalisation


  The growing interconnectedness of societies across the world, as a result of factors such as the creation of global media and global markets
• Identity


  An individual's sense of self that emerges through the socialisation process and interactions with other people
• Ideology


  A set of ideas, values and beliefs that are intended to justify the interests of a dominant social group
• Industrialisation


  The introduction of mechanisation and mass-production that has led many societies to transform from being agricultural to adopting the factory system of production
• Life chances


  The chances members of different social groups have to obtain those things that are desirable, including educational achievements, good income and health
• Modernity


  The period during which logic and rational principles were applied to the development and organisation of societies, as opposed to the more religious principles applied before this
• Norms and values


  These refer to the rules and expectations of what is important and right within a social group, which are passed on through the socialisation process and which serve to formally or informally control the behaviour of group members
• Postmodernity


  A perspective that views society as changing rapidly which has led to growing uncertainty and risk. As a result society has become so unstable and diverse that it is not possible for any one theory (or meta-narrative) to explain how it works
• Power relationships


  Differences in the power and influence of those within a relationship such as marriage, that may relate to money and decision-making and that may reflect inequality
• Secularisation


  The process whereby religious thinking, participation and influence in society is seen to be less important and in decline
• Socialisation


  The process of learning and internalising the culture of a society. The primary agent of socialisation is mainly the family, while secondary agents include the education system, the media and peer groups
• Social action theories


  Theories that see individuals as having free will and giving meanings to their actions, they are not simply passively shaped by the structures of society
• Hypothesis


  A supposition, hunch or informed guess, usually written as a statement that can be tested and then either supported by the evidence or proved wrong
• Ethical issues / considerations


  • Issues such as informed consent and confidentiality that sociologists must consider in order to conduct morally acceptable research
• Qualitative data


  Information presented as words or quotations
• Quantitative data


  Information presented in numerical form, e.g. as graphs, tables of statistics
• Primary research


  Information that is generated and collected at first hand by doing research using techniques such as questionnaires, interviews or observation
• Secondary research


  Information that already exists and has previously been generated by or collected by other people. Sources include official statistics, the mass media, autobiographies, and sociological studies
• Sample


  A subgroup of the population selected for study
• Open question


  A question that allows respondents to put forward their own answers rather than choose a response from several pre-set answers
• Closed question


  A fixed-choice question that requires the respondent to choose between a number of given answers
• Observer / Hawthorne Effect


  In an observation, individuals or groups of people may modify, change or improve an aspect of their behaviour because they are aware they are being observed. It can affect the validity of the findings
• Validity


  Findings are valid if they truly measure or capture what they are supposed to be studying
• Reliability


  Research findings are reliable if, after the research is repeated a second time using the same methods, the same or consistent results are obtained the second time round
• Representative sample


  Reflects the characteristics of its population. It is just like the population but a smaller version of it
• Generalisability


  The extent to which the findings from a study can be applied to the larger population of which the sample was a part
• Sampling frame


  A complete list of all members of the population from which a sample is drawn. Examples include membership lists, school registers and a list of postcode addresses
• Triangulation


  Cross checking the findings from a qualitative methods against the findings from quantitative methods. Doing this can improve the validity/generalisability of the research
• Mixed methods research


  The use of different methods within one project to generate both quantitative and qualitative data
• Content analysis


  The analysis of documents and images (e.g. media products) by constructing a set of categories, coding sections of the content according to these categories, and then counting the number of times a theme appears
• Pilot study


  A small scale trial that is carried out prior to the main study in order to test that there are no flaws in the methodology of the main research
• Case study


  A detailed study of a particular institution (such as a school or hospital) or a series of related events (such as the moral panic surrounding teenagers wearing hoodies)
• Confidentiality


  An agreement that all information (e.g. gathered from research participants) will only be accessed by those who have the authority and permission to access it
• Ethnography


  The study of people's culture and practices in everyday settings, usually based on qualitative methods such as participant observation and unstructured interviews
• Focus group


  A type of group interview that focuses on one particular topic. It explores how people interact within the group and how they respond to each other's views
• Longitudinal study


  A study of the same group of people conducted over a period of time. After the initial survey or interview has taken place, follow-up surveys or interviews are carried out at intervals over a number of years
• Nuclear family


  Two generational families containing a heterosexual married or cohabiting couple and their dependent children