psychopathology

• statistical infrequency 


  abnormal - behaviours which deviates from the mean

  the further the mean, the more abnormal the behaviour is
• positive evaluation of statistical infrequency

  - objective approach, once a cut off point is decided, it avoids any bias as to what is normal.

  - evidence helps to justify a request for treatment/psychiatric help using quantitive data
• negative evaluation of statistical infrequency

  - not all 'abnormal' behaviours are undesirable and not all 'normal' behaviours are desirable

  - people who are both abnormal but on two different ends of the scale might be treated differently

  - culture bias, behaviour and opinions on behaviour may differ between cultures/countries
• deviation from social norms

  abnormal - behaviours which break the terms of societal standards/norms

  can be seen as behaviour that deviates from or violates societies implicit or explicit rules and moral standards
• positive evaluation of deviation from social norms


  - protects society by distingushing abnormal behaviours and giving help to people who need it
• negative evaluation of deviation from social norms


  - subjective opinions, social norms are based off of opinions in society

  - cannot globally define abnormal and normal behaviour
• failiure to function adequatley


  abnormal - failiure to experience the normal range of emotions or behaviour
• Rosenhan and Seligemann (1989)

  1. observer discomfort (making others feel uncomfortable)

  2. violation of moral standards of society

  3. maladaptive behaviour (stopping individuals from life goals)

  4. unpredictable behaviour

  5. irrational behaviour
• positive evaluation of failire to function adequatley

  - observable behaviour to make a judgement level on normality

  - Rosenhan et al gave detail into what can be observed as normal or abnormal
• negative evaluation of failiure to function adequatley

  - subjective interpretation, most people will experience a phase of abnormal behaviour at different times in their lives (grief)

  - cultural bias

  - hasnt got a direct link to causes
• deviation from ideal mental health


  characteristics people should posess to be considered normal
• Jahoda (1958)


  mental health criteria:

  - autonomy – being independant and self regulating

  - accurate view of reality

  - resisiting stress – effective coping strategies

  - environmental mastery – able to adapt to different life changes or circumstances
• positive evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health


  - Jahoda gave a tick list to diagnose. Can see criteria of observable behaviour
• negative evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

  - subjective criteria

  - cultural bias
• avoidance response


  moving away from the phobic stimulus

  BEHAVIOURAL
• disruption of normal function


  struggle to take part in activities containing the phobias

  BEHAVIOURAL
• anxiety


  heightened sense of panic/stress

  EMOTIONAL
• excessive fear


  a strong physiological reaction caused leading to fight ot flight

  EMOTIONAL
• cognitive distortions


  warped belief about phobia

  COGNITIVE
• irrational belief 


  belief that the phobia may kill them

  COGNITIVE
• two process model (behavioural approach to phobias)

  1. the acqusition of phobias – occurs directly through classical conditioning/experience of a traumatic event

  2. maintenance of phobias – occurs through operant conditioning where avoiding or escaping from a feared object acts as a negative reinforcer
• watson and raynor (1920) 'little albert'


  - created a phobia of white objects on 11 month old 'little albert'
• 'little albert' process of conditioning

  noise (uncs) produces fear (uncr)

  rat (ns) paired with the noise (uncs) repeatedly

  rat (cs) produces fear (cr)
• 'little albert' results


  due to distressed behaviour, the phobia had been developed through association (noise and rat = fear)
• positive and negative reinforcement 


  increases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
• positive punishment 


  a bad consequence of behaviour in order to decrease the behaviour
• negative punishment


  removing plesant stimulus to decrease behaviour
• positive evaluation of the two process model


  - construct validity, support of the study by waston and raynors little albert study

  - real life application, exposure therapy and therapies for phobias
• negative evaluation of the two process model


  - reductionist, doesn't take into account the cognitive factors between seeing the phobic stimuli and the reaction (vicarious reinforcement)

  - an extreme view of nature that doesn't consider any biological factors

  - unethical research, Watson and Raynors little Albert study as there was no consent

  - little albert study is a case study, lacks generalisability and a small sample size
• Wolpe - systematic desensitisation


  treatment for phobias that stems from the belief that what has been learnt through conditioning can be unlearnt. Patients are gradually desensitised to the triggers that cause the phobia.
• steps of systematic desensitisation

  1. taught how to relax muscles completely 2. the therapist and patient imagine scenes that cause more and more anxiety as they go (anxiety hierarchy)

  3. as the patient reaches each scenario, they relax and then can move onto the next scenario

  4. the patient has mastered the situation
• flooding 


  overwhelming the individuals senses with an item or situation that causes anxiety so the individual realises no harm will come to them

  - NO step by step build up or relaxation techniques

  - no option for avoidance behaviour so the patient learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless

  - need to give informed consent as it is a highly stressful procedure
• WOLPE - flooding case


  used flooding the remove a girls phobia of being in cars

  - the girl was forced into the car and driven around for 4 hours until her hysteria had disappeared. demonstrating the effectiveness of the treatment
• evaluate wolpe's flooding


  negative - unethical as the girl was forced, no informed consent or protection from harm
• SOLTER - flooding case

  case study of a 5 month old baby who was traumatically stressed after being in hospital from 3 days whilst having surgery

  - used flooding over several treatment sessions

  first week = reduction in symptoms

  two months = no symptoms

  one year = no symptoms
• evaluate solter's flooding


  negative - no protection from harm but baby may not remember as its so young so not traumatised. case study so lack of generalisability

  positive - concurrent validity proves it is an effective treatment
• GILROY - systematic desensitisation case


  examined 42 patients with arachnophobia (fear of spiders). each patient was treated using three 45 minute systematic desensitisation sessions. when examined three months and 33 months later, the systematic desensitisation group were less fearful than a control group who were only taught relaxation techniques
• weight changes 


  behavioural depressive symptom
• loss of energy, fatigue and lathargic

  behavioural depressive symptom
• social impairment 


  behavioural depressive symptom