psychopathology

• outline statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality 


  • statistics describe typical values or "normal" behaviour
  • characteristics that can be reliably measured
  • frequency graph shows a normal distribution

  IQ & intellectual disability disorder:

  • average IQ is 100, those below 70 deemed as "abnormal"
  • liable to receive diagnosis of IDD
• evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality

  + real life application, diagnosis of IDD, useful in clinical assessment

  X desirable behaviours, super-smart doesn't need treatment

  X labelling as abnormal, negative view of themselves
• outline deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality 


  • norms defined by group of people
  • standards of what is deemed acceptable
  • may be implicit or defined by law

  antisocial personality disorder:

  • DSM-5 symptom is "absence of prosocial internal standards"
  • failure to conform to lawful or moral standards
• evaluate deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality

  + real life application, diagnosis of APD, remember other factors

  X human rights abuse, changing norms, incarcerate non-conformists

  X cultural relativism, norms vary between community, hearing voices
• outline failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality


  • unable to manage everyday life e.g. eating regularly
  • abnormal if causes distress to others or self

  intellectual disability disorder:

  • diagnosis based on very low IQ
  • individual has to be failing to function adequately too
• evaluate failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality

  + patient's perspective, acknowledges their experience

  X subjective judgements, distress judged through checklists

  X alternative lifestyles isn't failure to function, limit personal freedom
• outline deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality 


  Jahoda - characteristics for good mental health

  • high self-esteem
  • self-actualisation
  • autonomy
  • accurate perception of reality
  • mastery of environment
• evaluate deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality

  + comprehensive, broad range of criteria, humanistic

  X unrealistic, high standard for mental health, everyone is abnormal

  X cultural relativism, specific to western europe, individualistic
• explain the characteristics of phobias

  1. emotional - excessive fear, anxiety/panic cued by stimulus
  2. behavioural - avoidance, fight or flight, interferes with everyday life
  3. cognitive - selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions
• explain the characteristics of depression

  1. emotional - low mood, anger, low self-esteem
  2. behavioural - activity levels, disruption to sleep/eating, self-harm/aggression
  3. cognitive - absolutist thinking, poor concentration, negative thoughts
• explain the characteristics of OCD

  1. emotional - anxiety/distress, depression, guilt & disgust
  2. behavioural - compulsions (repetitive or reduce anxiety) and avoidance
  3. cognitive - obsessive thoughts, excessive anxiety, strategies to deal
• outline and evaluate behavioural approach to explaining phobias

  two-process model

  • classical conditioning - NS becomes CS, producing fear
  • Little Albert - white rat generalised to other white furry objects
  • operant conditioning - negative reinforcement (avoidance)
  • social learning - phobic behaviours of others are modelled

  evaluation

  + treatments, systematic desensitisation, high validity

  X based on behavioural explanations, ignores cognitive/emotional, simplistic

  X alternative, not all phobias require neutral stimulus, peer/media influence
• outline behavioural approach to treating phobias

  systematic desensitisation

  • counterconditioning - stimulus associated with relaxation
  • reciprocal inhibition - relaxation inhibits anxiety

  1. anxiety hierarchy: situations provoking anxiety arranged in order
  2. relaxation: deep breathing, muscle relaxation
  3. exposure: follow anxiety hierarchy in relaxed state

  flooding

  • one long session with most fearful stimulus
  • continues until anxiety subsides and relaxation complete
  • can be in vivo or virtual reality
• evaluate behavioural approach to treating phobias

  systematic desensitisation

  
  

  X Ohman, ineffective for survival phobias, over-simplified

  + effective, McGrath 75% responded, in vivo more effective

  + fast, lack of "thought" useful for those with learning difficulties, self-administered

  
  

  flooding

  
  

  + effective, Choy - most effective, Craske - equally effective

  X individual differences, traumatic, may quit during

  X ineffective for social phobias, need cognitive therapies
• outline cognitive approach to explaining depression

  Ellis ABC model

  • activating event
  • beliefs, irrational (musturbation or utopianism)
  • consequences, emotional or behavioural

  Beck's negative triad

  • faulty information processing, ignores positives
  • negative self-schemas
  • negative triad

  1. negative view of world
  2. negative view of future
  3. negative view of self
• evaluate cognitive approach to explaining depression

  Ellis ABC model

  
  

  + practical application, CBT challenges beliefs, irrational has some role

  X partial, reactive depression, not generalisable to other types

  X can't explain anger, hallucinations, delusions or vulnerability of individual

  
  

  Beck's negative triad

  
  

  X depression is complex, cotard syndrome, simplistic

  + support, Terry - high cognitive vulnerability more post-natal depression

  + practical application, CBT treating depression, successful therapy
• outline the cognitive approach to treating depression

  REBT (ellis)

  • D - dispute irrational beliefs e.g. logical, empirical, pragmatic
  • E - effect of disputing, feelings produced
  • behavioural activation - engage in enjoyable activities
  • unconditional positive regard - reduces sense of worthlessness

  CBT (beck)

  • directly challenges irrational thoughts
  • test reality of negative beliefs
  • homework - record event they enjoyed, proves statement is incorrect
  • behavioural activation - pleasurable activities
  • unconditional positive regard
• evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression

  + support, improvement rates - 81% in CBT, 81% meds, 86% both, improved symptoms

  X simplified, overlooks circumstances, less suitable in high stress situations

  X reliant on client, 27 sessions on average, motivate themselves
• outline biological approach to explaining OCD

  genetic explanations

  • COMPT gene - one allele more common in OCD, high levels of dopamine
  • SERT gene - one allele more common in family with OCD, low levels of serotonin
  • diathesis stress - same genes linked to other disorders or no disorders, create vulnerability

  neural explanation

  • high dopamine levels - compulsive behaviours
  • low serotonin levels - antidepressants increase most effectively
  • worry circuit - caudate nucleus doesn't suppress signals from OFC to thalamus
  • serotonin & dopamine linked to activity in frontal lobe
• evaluate biological approach to explaining OCD

  genetic explanations

  
  

  + support, Nestadt - 68% identical twins share OCD, 31% non-identical

  X candidate genes, variation increases risk, little predictive value

  X environment, Cromer - 1/2 had past trauma, focus on environmental causes

  
  

  neural explanations

  
  

  + support, antidepressants reduce symptoms, biological processes responsible

  X clarity, Cavedini - no system always plays a role in OCD, can't understand neural mechanisms

  X cause, various structures function abnormally, result rather than cause
• outline and evaluate biological approach to treating OCD


  drug therapy

  • antidepressants - increase serotonin
  • SSRIs - prevent re-uptake of serotonin by pre-synaptic neuron
  • tricyclics - block re-uptake of noradrenaline and serotonin
  • anti-anxiety drugs - BZs enhance GABA, neurotransmitter slows nervous system
  • D-Cycloserine - reduces anxiety

  evaluation

  X side effects, clomipramine (1/10 - tremors, 1/100 - aggression)

  + effective, Soomro - decline in 70% compared to 30%, help most patients

  + cheap, good for NHS, doesn't need hard work of therapy
• outline the characteristics of depression

  behavioural:

  • activity levels
  • disruptive sleep and appetite
  • aggression or self-harm

  emotional:

  • low mood
  • anger
  • low self-esteem

  cognitive:

  • poor concentration
  • dwell on negatives
  • absolutist thinking
• outline the characteristics of OCD

  behavioural:

  • compulsions
  • avoidance

  emotional:

  • anxiety
  • depression
  • guilt

  cognitive:

  • obsessions
  • excessive anxiety
• outline characteristics of phobias

  behavioural:

  • panic
  • avoidance
  • endurance

  emotional:

  • anxiety
  • unreasonable responses

  cognitive:

  • selective attention
  • irrational beliefs
  • cognitive distortions