1.1 biology

• Biotechnology


  The modification of living organisms for human purposes, also called genetic engineering
• Genetic code


  The set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material into proteins
• Plasmids


  Simple loops of DNA in bacteria containing a couple of genes, separate from the large circular chromosome
• Viruses


  Non-living infectious agents containing DNA or RNA that can invade cells and make the cells express the genes on the viral DNA/RNA
• DNA Probe


  A short strand of DNA or RNA with a base sequence complementary to the target gene, used for locating specific genes
• Restriction enzymes


  Enzymes derived from bacteria that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences, often used to isolate genes of interest
• Eco R1


  An example of a restriction enzyme, with the recognition sequence GAATTC
• Sticky end


  The little piece of single-stranded DNA left by the cut from a restriction enzyme. It's ready to bind with other sticky ends cut with the same restriction enzyme
• Bacterial transformation


  The process by which bacteria take up external DNA, often used to introduce new genes into bacteria
• Electroporation


  A method of introducing DNA into cells by applying an electric field, increasing the permeability of the cell membrane
• Microinjection


  A method of introducing DNA directly into the nucleus of a cell, often used in embryos to create transgenic organisms
• CRISPR-Cas9


  A bacterial immune system that can be repurposed for precise gene editing in other organisms
• Cas9


  An enzyme produced by bacteria in the CRISPR system that cuts DNA at a specific location guided by RNA
• Guide RNA


  RNA that binds to Cas9 and leads it to the complementary sequence of a target DNA for cutting
• De novo (designer) proteins


  New proteins designed and created from scratch using computational methods and gene synthesis
• Transgenic


  term used to refer to an organism that contains genes from other organisms
• Target gene


  A gene intentionally inserted into a different organism
• recognition sequence


  A specific sequence of nucleotides at which a restriction enzyme cleaves a DNA molecule
• DNA ligase


  an enzyme that joins DNA fragments by making bonds between the sugar and phosphate in the sugar-phosphate backbone after the bases have bound complementary to one another with hydrogen bonds
• Heat shock


  Cells are heated to disrupt the cell membrane and allow plasmids to enter
• Transformation


  process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another organism
• DNA Extraction


  Cell membrane broken down by detergents. Protease removes the proteins associated with DNA. Ethanol makes DNA precipitate. Centrifuging concentrates the DNA.
• PCR


  polymerase chain reaction
• Denaturation (PCR)


  the first step of PCR when the DNA sample is heated to 94 to separate strands as hydrogen bonds
• PCR in order


  Denaturation. Anealing. Elongation.
• Annealing (PCR)


  DNA primers attach to opposite ends of the target sequence in the DNA at 40-60 degrees
• Elongation (PCR)


  A heat-tolerant DNA polymerase (Taq) copies the strands at 72 degrees
• PCR Ingredients


  DNA, primers, free nucleotides, Taq Polymerase
• Taq polymerase


  A DNA synthesis enzyme that can withstand the high temperatures of PCR
• Primer


  A short segment of DNA that acts as the starting point for a new strand
• 92 degrees


  Denaturation in PCR
• 40-60 degrees


  Annealing in PCR
• 72 degrees


  Elongation in PCR
• DNA amplification


  Creation of many copies of a segment of DNA by the polymerase chain reaction
• Number of strands of DNA after 3 cycles if you started with 1

  8

  (doubles every cycle)
• Gel Electrophoresis


  A method for separation and analysis of biomacromolecules and their fragments, based on their size and charge. Smaller fragments travel further in a set time
• Agarose gel


  preferred gel for DNA electrophoresis
• Negative charge


  Used to separate DNA strands in gel electrophoresis
• DNA Amplification


  Creation of many copies of a segment of DNA by the polymerase chain reaction
• Restriction enzyme


  Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides