psychopathology - aqa a level psychology

• cultural relativism


  the view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of of the culture in which it originates
• dsm (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders)


  a list of disorders that is used to diagnose mental disorders. for each the clinical characteristics is given ie. the symptoms
• definitions of abnormality


  1. statistical infrequency

  2. deviation from social norms

  3. failure to function adequately

  4. deviation from ideal mental health
• statistical infrequency


  abnormality is defined as behaviour that is extremely rare
• deviation from social norms


  abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from social rules about how one ought to behave. anyone who violates these rules is considered abnormal
• failure to function adequately

  people are judged by their ability to go about daily life. if they can't do this and are also experiencing distress (or others are distressed by their behaviour) then it is considered a sign of abnormality
• deviation from ideal mental health


  abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours are associated with competence and happiness
• jahoda's characteristics of ideal mental health

  - self attitudes

  - personal growth and self actualisation

  - integration

  - autonomy

  - an accurate perception of reality

  - mastery of the environment
• evaluation of statistical infrequency

  + sometimes appropriate, for example diagnosing IQ related mental disorders

  - some abnormal behaviours are desirable

  - cut off point is subjective

  - cultural relativism
• evaluation of deviation from social norms

  + distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour

  - susceptible to abuse

  - cultural relativism
• evaluation of failure to function adequately

  + recognises the subjective experience of the participant

  - judgement depends on who is making the decision (subjective)

  - some dysfunctional behaviour may be functional

  - cultural relativism
• evaluation of ideal mental health

  + positive approach

  - unrealistic criteria

  - tries to apply principles of physical health to mental health

  - cultural relativism
• phobias

  a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimuli. the anxiety interferes with normal living
• emotional characteristics of phobias


  - fear that is persistent and unreasonable

  - feelings of anxiety and panic

  - emotions out of proportion to the danger posed
• behavioural characteristics of phobias

  - avoidance

  - freeze or faint
• cognitive characteristics of phobias

  - irrational nature of a person's thinking and resistance to rational arguments

  - person recognises the fear is excessive or unreasonable
• depression


  a mood disorder where an individual feels sad or lacks interest in their usual activities. also includes irrational and negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels, and difficulties with concentration, sleep or eating
• emotional characteristics of depression

  - sadness or loss of pleasure in normal activities

  - worthless, hopeless or experience low self esteem

  - loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities
• behavioural characteristics of depression

  - shift in activity level either reduced or increased

  - sleep may be effected, some people sleep more or others suffer with insomnia

  - appetite increased or decreased

  - self harm
• cognitive characteristics of depression

  - negative thoughts such as guilt

  - negative view on the world

  - negative self beliefs
• obsessive - compulsive disorder (ocd)

  an anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions, and compulsions.
• emotional characteristics of ocd

  - anxiety and distress

  - feelings of disgust
• cognitive characteristics of ocd

  - obsessions

  - person does usually recognise at some point that their thoughts are irrational
• behavioural characteristics of ocd

  - compulsive behaviours to reduce the anxiety (eg. hand washing, checking or praying)

  - not connected with a realistic way with that they are designed to prevent
• obsessions


  persistent thoughts
• compulsions


  actions that the individual believes reduces their anxiety
• two process model


  a theory that explains the two processes that lead to the development of phobias

  they are classical conditioning and operant conditioning
• classical conditioning in initiating phobias


  the phobia is acquired through association between two stimuluses to produce a conditioned responsee
• classical conditioning process in developing phobias example

  for a phobia of dogs

  1. dogs (NS) = no response

  2. being bitten (NS) = unconditioned response (fear)

  3. neutral stimulus (dog) + neutral stimulus (being bitten) = unconditioned response (fear)

  4. conditioned stimulus (dog) + conditioned stimulus (being bitten) = conditioned response (fear)
• operant conditioning in maintaining phobias

  the avoidance of the phobia reduces fear and is therefore reinforcing the phobia
• social learning in acquiring phobias

  phobias may be acquired by modelling the behaviour of others
• evaluation of the behaviourist approach in explaining phobias

  + research support for the importance of classical conditioning

  + research support for social learning

  - ignores cognitive factors

  - cannot explain all phobias as not all are developed by a traumatic incident, some can possibly come from a biological preparedness to fear certain things
• ways to treat phobias

  1. systematic desensitisation

  2. flooding
• systematic desensitisation


  a form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. a client is gradually exposed to the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished
• counter conditioning


  the patient is taught a new association that counters the original faulty association. they are taught through classical conditioning to associate the phobic stimulus with a new response (ie. relaxation instead of fear)
• relaxation in SD


  patients are taught relaxation techniques such as

  - focusing on their breathing by taking slow, deep breaths, as we breathe quickly when anxious.

  - being mindful of the 'here and now'

  - focusing on a particular object or visualising a peaceful scene

  - progressive muscle relaxation
• desensitisation hierarchy


  the therapy proceeds through gradual steps that are determined at the beginning of the therapy in which the client and therapist work out a hierarchy from least to most fearful stimulus
• flooding


  a form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders. a client is exposed to an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished
• rationale in flooding


  a person's fear response has a time limit, as adrenaline levels naturally decrease
• in vitro desensitisation


  actual exposure