Learning

• Classical Conditioning


  A three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response
• Learning


  A relatively permanent change in behaviour or mental processes resulting from practice or experience
• Classical Conditioning


  • Ivan Pavlov's research found that learning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
• Key Terms


  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): before conditioning doesn't naturally elicit response of interest
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): elicits UCR without prior conditioning
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned reaction to UCS occurring without prior conditioning
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously NS that, through repeated pairings with UCS, now causes a CR
  • Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to a CS occurring because of prior repeated pairings with an UCS
• Answering an Exam Question

  Before conditioning, the bell (neutral stimulus) initially produced no relevant response. The food (unconditioned stimulus) produces the response of salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the food (UCS) and the bell (NS) are repeatedly paired to produce salivation (UCR). After conditioning, the bell (conditioned stimulus) now produces the response of salivation (conditioned response), without the presence of food (UCS)
• Nature of the Response

  • For classical conditioning to occur, the UCR must initially be an automatic or involuntary response, such as a reflex response. The behaviour shown in the UCR occurs without the need for prior learning, and the behaviour sometimes serves a protective or survival function. The learner is therefore passive
• Timing of the NS and UCS pairing

  • Pavlov found that the NS should be presented before the UCS and that there should be a very short time between their presentations. Ideally, the NS should occur not more than half a second before the UCS in order for the association to be most effectively made. According to Pavlov's research, longer time intervals were less effective for the dogs in establishing the links
• Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jd7Jdug5SRc
• Observational Learning


  Social-cognitive approaches to learning, as illustrated by observational learning as a process involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement
• Observational Learning


  A theory of learning that focuses on the active role of learning through the observation of their environment
• Observational Learning


  Highlights that young children learn new behaviours through watching or observing others
• Stages of Observational Learning - Attention

  1. Attention must be paid to the model's behaviour and its consequences

  2. This is a cognitive aspect of observational learning

  3. For example, a child might concentrate on a parent (model) making pancakes for breakfast

  4. Attention can be influenced by characteristics of the observer such as perceptual and cognitive capabilities, and arousal level
• Stages of Observational Learning -Retention

  1. The learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as a mental representation (understanding of what to do in the mind of the learner) so that the observed learning can be utilised at a later time

  2. This is a cognitive aspect of observational learning because the memory must be stored and later retrieved to reproduce the behaviour

  3. For example, the child stores the memory of the ingredients and procedure for making pancakes as a mental representation
• Stages of Observational Learning - Reproduction


  1. The learner must have the physical and intellectual ability to convert these mental representations into actions

  2. For example, the child must be old enough to be able to use the kitchen equipment for making pancakes
• Stages of Observational Learning - Motivation


  1. The learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour

  2. This will depend on whether the learner believes that there will be a desirable consequence (reinforcement) for reproducing the learnt behaviour

  3. For example, A child wanting to eat pancakes for their birthday
• Stages of Observational Learning – Reinforcement

  1. When there is the prospect of a positive result for imitating the behaviour (i.e. a reward for the learner), it is likely that the learner will do so

  2. In contrast, if there is a prospect of punishment for reproducing the learnt behaviour, it is less likely that the behaviour will be imitated

  3. For example, the child must perceive that praise will be given for making the pancakes or that there will be personal pleasure in eating the pancakes

  4. The expectation of reinforcement affects how well the learner pays attention to and retains the memory of the model's behaviour
• Attention


  • Jeanie watches her older sister playing on the monkey bars, climbing across each bar
  • She pays close attention to how she pulls herself up and swings her arms across
• Retention


  • Jeanie stores a mental representation of her sister on the monkey bars
  • She remembers that in order to reach the bars, she first needs to step up on the step to lift herself up
• Reproduction


  • Jeanie has the physical and intellectual capabilities to be able also climb the monkey bars
  • She is tall enough to be able to pull herself up and across each bar
• Motivation


  • Jeanie is motivated to climb the monkey bars because her sister looks like she's having a lot of fun
• Reinforcement


  • After Jeanie successfully climbs across the monkey bars, she feels excited and had fun, and so she wants to climb across again
• Practice Scenarios: Describe and explain how one of the following ways of thinking, feeling or behaving may have been acquired by someone through observational learning with reference to the sequence of processes. You may present your answer in a flow chart format (similar to previous slide)
• Video - Bandura
• Operant Conditioning


  A three-phase process (antecedent, behaviour and consequence) involving reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment (positive and negative)
• Law of effect


  Actions followed by favourable consequences are more likely to be repeated than actions followed by unfavourable consequences
• Operant conditioning


  A type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
• Operant conditioning


  1. Antecedent

  2. Behaviour

  3. Consequence
• Teaching a dog to sit

  • Sit!
• Antecedent


  Anything (object, circumstance, event, etc.) in the learner's environment that triggers a response
• Antecedent


  • Seeing an incoming call from an unknown number flash on your phone screen
• Behaviour


  The learner's voluntary response to the antecedent
• Behaviour


  • Pressing the 'answer' button on your phone
• Consequence


  The event in the learner's environment that follows the response, either making the behaviour more or less likely to be repeated
• Consequence


  • Talking with a telemarketer about a product you're not interested in. This could decrease the likelihood of you answering a call from an unknown number again.
• Reinforcer


  Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the response being repeated
• Positive reinforcement


  Something good is added
• Negative reinforcement


  The avoidance or removal of something unpleasant
• Punishment


  Any consequence that weakens or reduces the likelihood of a response being repeated
• Positive punishment


  Something unpleasant is added
• Negative punishment (response cost)


  Something good is lost