GENDER

• Sex


  Biological term which describes the biological idea of being male or female
• Gender


  Social construct that allows each individual to identify themselves as being either feminine or masculine
• You cannot choose your sex, but you can choose your gender
• Sex means that there are uncontrollable internal workings, whereas gender means that you have some control over how you behave and present yourself
• Gender-identity disorder


  Occurs when a person's sex is not in accordance with their gender
• Transgender


  Individuals who identify as being transgender, and/or undergo gender transitioning
• Sex-role stereotypes


  Expectations and perceptions that individuals and society have as to what is appropriate behaviour for each sex
• Androgyny


  Describes someone who, from a psychological standpoint, displays a balance of both 'masculine' and 'feminine' characteristics
• Androgyny


  • Can be viewed from two perspectives - personality and appearance
• Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)


  Measure of androgyny, with 20 items representing typically male characteristics, 20 representing typically female characteristics and 20 representing neutral characteristics
• The BSRI is a self-report measure, which is a methodological issue as androgyny is a subjective social construct
• There is evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the BSRI
• The BSRI may be an oversimplification of the complex and subjective social construct of gender
• Chromosomes


  Small sections of DNA, containing genes which code for proteins and hormones
• Sex chromosomes


  The 23rd pair of chromosomes, with the genotype for females being XX and for males being XY
• Y chromosome


  Signals the foetus to develop as a male, due to the presence and activation of the SRY gene which produces androgens
• Testosterone


  Male hormone, secreted from the adrenal glands, associated with increased aggression
• Oestrogen


  Female sex hormone, triggers the development of female reproductive organs and increased irritability/emotion during menstruation
• Oxytocin


  The 'love hormone', provokes feelings of intimacy and closeness, and has an evolutionary advantage in bonding mother and child
• Explaining gender entirely in terms of chromosomes and hormones may be an oversimplification, ignoring differences within genders and being an example of biological determinism
• Klinefelter's Syndrome


  Characterised by the genotype XXY, affecting biological males who develop female-like physical and psychological characteristics

  
• Turner's Syndrome


  Characterised by the genotype X0, affecting females who develop male-like physical and psychological characteristics

  
• The emphasis on biology and genetics as an explanation for the differences between those with Klinefelter's/Turner's Syndrome and the neurotypical population is an example of biological determinism
• The syndromes resulting from atypical sex chromosome patterns have made considerable contributions towards the nature versus nurture debate, but the focus on determining what is 'atypical' is highly subjective
• Understanding the biological basis of Klinefelter's and Turner's Syndrome may lead to effective treatments to improve the quality of life and condition of sufferers

  
• Kohlberg's Theory of Gender Development

  Suggests that all children mature through the same 3 stages of gender development, in line with biologically-determined physical and cognitive development
• Kohlberg's Stages of Gender Development

  • Stage 1 (2-3 years old): Can identify themselves as male or female, but not others, and do not appreciate gender constancy

  Stage 2 (3-6 years old): Can identify gender in others, but still do not appreciate gender constancy

  Stage 3 (6-12 years old): Fully understand gender identity and constancy
• Kohlberg suggested that all children mature through the same 3 stages of gender development
• Kohlberg's stages of gender development

  • Stage 1 (gender identity, 2-3 years old): Child can identify themselves as male or female, but not others
  • Stage 2 (gender stability, 4-5 years old): Child appreciates their own gender remains constant, but not others
  • Stage 3 (gender constancy, 6 years old): Child appreciates their own and others' gender remains constant
• Social learning theory


  Children imitate and develop characteristics/personality traits of sex-role appropriate role models
• Slaby and Frey (1975) found children in Kohlberg's stage 2 paid more attention and were more attracted to same-sex models
• Martin and Halverson agreed with Kohlberg on the positive correlation between age and sophisticated gender identity understanding
• Gender schemas


  Mental frameworks of pre-conceived ideas and beliefs about gender identity

  
• Gender schema theory


  • Child actively seeks out information to confirm gender identity beliefs through increasingly sophisticated schemas
  • Initially based on stereotypes, but become more comprehensive with experience
  • Creates 'ingroup' (own gender) and 'outgroup' (other genders)
• Gender schema theory and Kohlberg's theory are complementary
• Psychosexual stages


  Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
• Oedipus Complex


  Boys suffer from castration anxiety, identify with father to internalise his values
• Electra Complex


  Girls suffer from penis envy, identify with mother after accepting she cannot be removed
• Social Learning Theory


  Learning occurs through direct (conditioning) or indirect (vicarious reinforcement) experience, facilitated by role models
• Differential reinforcement


  Direct learning method specific to gender development, where certain behaviours are reinforced differently based on gender