Antarctic treaty system

• The ATS is not an international organization, but rather a framework agreement that establishes the legal basis for cooperation among its parties.
• Antarctica


  • Fifth largest continent
  • Size of USA and Mexico combined (14 million km2)
  • Adjoining Southern Ocean (36 million km2)
  • Largest wilderness area on Earth
  • Interior is a high, flat plateau (averaging 2,500m)
  • Mount Vinson is the high point (4,892m)
  • Less than 5% of the land is ice-free
  • Ice is on average 2,000m thick
• Precipitation levels in Antarctica

  Ranging from 70mm at the South Pole to 400mm at the coast
• Antarctica experiences high winds, up to a record of 327km/h
• Antarctica


  • Fifth largest continent
  • Size of USA and Mexico combined (14 million km2)
  • Adjoining Southern Ocean (36 million km2)
  • Largest wilderness area on Earth
  • Interior is a high, flat plateau (averaging 2,500m)
  • Mount Vinson is the high point (4,892m)
  • Less than 5% of the land is ice-free
  • Ice is on average 2,000m thick
• Precipitation levels in Antarctica

  Ranging from 70mm at the South Pole to 400mm at the coast
• Antarctic wildlife


  • Over 100 million birds from 35 species of seabirds, including 7 species of penguin
  • 6 species of seal (up to 15 million Crabeater seals, 800,000 Weddell seals, 750,000 Elephant seals)
  • 8 species of whale
• Antarctica experiences high winds, up to a record of 327km/h
• Terrestrial life in Antarctica is dominated by micro-organisms, microscopic animals, algae, lichens, mosses and liverworts
• Antarctic wildlife


  • Over 100 million birds from 35 species of seabirds, including 7 species of penguin
  • 6 species of seal (up to 15 million Crabeater seals, 800,000 Weddell seals, 750,000 Elephant seals)
  • 8 species of whale
• Only two flowering plants are found on the Antarctic Peninsula
• Antarctica has no native peoples, but has a permanent population of up to 10,000 scientists in summer and 1,100 in winter
• Countries with territorial claims in Antarctica

  • Argentina
  • Chile
  • UK
  • France
  • Australia
  • New Zealand
  • Norway
• Antarctic Treaty System (ANTARCTICA) signed in Washington


  1961
• The claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK overlap, and are not recognised by other nations
• Antarctic Treaty System


  • Signed in 1959
  • Article 14 and regulations prohibit any military actions
  • Grown from original 12 countries to now 54 signatories
  • Solved few territorial disputes e.g. between UK and Argentina
  • Original framework expanded and adapted over time
• The USA and Russia have openly reserved the right to make territorial claims in Antarctica
• Purpose of Antarctic Treaty System

  • To ensure Antarctic remains untouched - no warfare or exploitation of resources
  • To regulate international relations - untouched to warfare and exploitation
• The claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK overlap, and are not recognised by other nations
• Antarctic Treaty


  • Signed in 1959 to protect the region and create a system of control
  • Now has 46 signatories, of which 28 are full Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties
• Expansion of Antarctic Treaty System

  1. 1964 - expanded into wildlife not for scientific purposes and free exchange of any scientific info gained and cooperation for scientific research

  2. Regulations involving ships, conservation, fishing, and nuclear explosions - all prohibited unless compliant with strict guidelines

  3. All military operations banned

  4. Set up as nature reserve - peace and science
• The USA and Russia have openly reserved the right to make territorial claims in Antarctica
• Key articles of the Antarctic Treaty

  • Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
  • Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
  • No nation would be obliged to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made
• Modern accessibility and technology have led to increasing uncertainty about the sustainability of the Antarctic Treaty System, e.g. China's long-term support despite being a signatory
• Antarctic Treaty


  • Signed in 1959 to protect the region and create a system of control
  • Now has 46 signatories, of which 28 are full Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties
• Agreements that have evolved from the Antarctic Treaty

  • 1964 Agreement for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
  • 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
  • 1982 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
  • 1998 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
• Territorial claims issue being avoided could be a source of uncertainty in the future
• There are questions over the benefit of the Antarctic Treaty System due to the expense, if countries cannot afford scientific research then there are no benefits for them
• Environmental Protocol


  • Commits parties to 'comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment'
  • Designates Antarctica as a 'natural reserve, devoted to peace and science'
  • Bans all commercial mineral resource activity
  • Requires environmental impact assessment of activities
• The success of the Antarctic Treaty System is dependent on perspective - emerging or developing countries may feel shielded out whereas developed countries can see it as more beneficial/opportunity
• The Environmental Protocol's regulations are mandatory and legally binding on all the signatory parties
• The Antarctic Treaty System is recognised as one of the most successful international agreements in history, leading to the discovery of several scientific breakthroughs such as the hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica
• Key articles of the Antarctic Treaty

  • Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
  • Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
  • No nation would be obliged to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made
• After 2048, the Environmental Protocol may be revised, but any changes would require a 75% majority among the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties
• No wars have ever broken out in the Antarctic, proving the success of banning military operations
• Greenpeace and the World Wide Fund for Nature have campaigned to have Antarctica designated as a World Park
• The treaty had an expiry date of 30 years after creation, but after 30 years all signatories agreed it should remain the same as it had worked so well
• The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, a global coalition of over 1000 environmental NGOs, has worked since 1978 to ensure that Antarctica remains an unspoiled wilderness
• Antarctic Treaty System


  • Guarantees freedom to conduct scientific research and promotes international scientific cooperation e.g. exchange of research plans and personnel
  • Prohibits nuclear arms and disposal of radioactive waste, and provides inspection by observers of ships, stations and equipment headed or based in Antarctica
• Agreements that have evolved from the Antarctic Treaty

  • 1964 Agreement for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
  • 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
  • 1982 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
  • 1998 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty