psychopathology

• Deviation from social norms

  A behaviour is seen as abnormal if it violates unwritten rules (social norms) about what is acceptable in a particular society
• + Distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour


  Social deviance distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour. This is absent from the statistical infrequency explanation.

  
  

  The social deviance definition takes into account the effect that behaviour has on others.

  
  

  It offers a practical and useful way of identifying undesirable and potentially damaging behaviour.

  
  

  - What is considered desirable and undesirable may vary between situations (e.g. shouting at a football match is desirable, but shouting in a library is undesirable).
• - Susceptible to abuse


  What is considered as socially acceptable changes overtime.

  
  

  Homosexuality is acceptable in most countries, but in the past it was included under sexual and gender identity disorders in the DSM.

  
  

  If a person is seen deviating from social norms they may be segregated from others and mistreated.

  
  

  + It could be argued that in certain cases this segregation is for the best (e.g. segregating criminals from the general public).
• - Deviance is related to context and degree

  Context is important when it comes to judging behaviour as normal or abnormal. Something may be seen as normal and acceptable in one context but not in another.

  
  

  Wearing a swimsuit is regarded as normal at a pool or the beach, but the same outfit in a classroom or at a formal gathering would be regarded as abnormal.

  
  

  Social deviance doesn't offer a complete definition of abnormality, for other factors change whether something is normal or abnormal.
• - Cultural relativism of deviation from social norms


  What is classified as deviant from social norms varies from culture to culture.

  
  

  Classification systems, such as DSM, are almost entirely based on the social norms of the dominant culture in the West (White and middle class), and yet the same criteria are applied to people from different subcultures living in the West.

  
  

  What is classed as socially deviant isn't generalisable to all of society.

  
  

  + Cultural relativism is now acknowledged in the most recent version of the DSM. For example, in the section on panic attacks a note is made that uncontrollable crying may be a symptom in some cultures, whereas difficulty breathing may be a primary symptom in other cultures.
• Statistical infrequency


  A mathematical method for defining abnormality

  
  

  If something occurs rarely (in terms of statistics) then it is abnormal.

  
  

  Based on the assumption that traits/behaviours in the human population follow a 'normal distribution
• + Objective


  The mathematical nature of this definition means that it is clear what is defined as abnormal and what is not.

  
  

  There is no opinion involved which means there is no bias.
• - Inflexible


  There is a degree of inflexibility with this definition.

  
  

  It states that scores in the top and bottom 2.5% of the population are abnormal, but we know that there is some behaviour which is deemed abnormal by the diagnostic manuals for mental illness that would not fit within that definition.

  
  

  This means that the definition and the current criteria for defining mental health issues are at odds with each other.
• - Some abnormal behaviours are desirable


  Having an IQ over 150 is abnormal. This does not make it a bad thing.

  
  

  Many people desire having a high IQ, but people with one are seen as abnormal.
• - Abnormal behaviours can occur frequently

  It is not the case that abnormal, as in unhelpful and painful, behaviours occur rarely.

  
  

  Depression is an example, where it is argued that 25% of the population will experience a mental health issue at some point in their lives.
• - Cultural relativism of statistical infrequency


  There is no consideration of cultural differences at all as it argues that the population of the world are contained within the normal distribution.

  
  

  There are variances between cultures and the mathematical nature of this definition does not allow for this.

  
  

  This ultimately means that abnormality could be widespread in one culture because of its comparison with the rest of the world.
• Failure to function adequately


  An inability to cope with day-to-day living
• Rosenhan and Seligman's characteristics


  - Unpredictability

  - Maladaptive behaviour

  - Personal distress

  - Irrationality

  - Observer discomfort

  - Violation of moral standards

  - Unconventionality
• + Recognises the subjective experience of the person


  This definition is focused on the individual and how they are managing in everyday life from their perspective.

  
  

  This allows us to view the mental disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it.

  
  

  If someone feels as though they are struggling they will be deemed abnormal and get help.
• + Observable behaviour


  Failure to function adequately can be seen by others around the individual.

  
  

  E.g. they may not get out of bed on a morning, or be able to hold a job down.

  
  

  This means that problems can be picked up by others and if the individual is incapable of making a decision or helping themselves others can intervene.
• - Abnormal behaviour might be functional


  Abnormality doesn't always stop the person functioning.

  
  

  Abnormal behaviour may depend on the person.

  
  

  Dysfunctional behaviour may be adaptive and functional for the individual (e.g. staying in bed may make a depressed person feel better).
• - Cultural relativism of failure to function adequately


  What is classified as functioning 'adequately' varies from culture to culture.

  
  

  The ability to cope with everyday life depends on what is seen as normal everyday life.

  
  

  In certain cultures, siestas may be seen as normal. In other cultures, sleeping in the day is abnormal.
• Deviation from ideal mental health


  Abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours that are associated with competence and happiness.
• Marie Jahoda's characteristics


  - Self attitudes

  - Personal growth and self actualisation

  - Integration

  - Autonomy

  - Having an accurate perception of reality

  - Mastery of the environment
• Self-attitudes


  An individual's self-esteem levels

  
  

  For ideal mental health the positive attitude should be at a good level so that the individual feels happy with themself.
• Personal growth and self-actualisation


  The innate desire and tendency to become your best self

  
  

  A state of contentment, feeling that you have become the best you can be
• Integration


  Adapting to stressful situations
• Autonomy


  The ability to function as an individual and not depending on others
• Having an accurate perception of reality


  How the individual sees the world around them

  
  

  For ideal mental health, an individual's perception should be similar to others' perception.
• Mastery of the environment

  Adaptability to new situations appropriately
• + Focused


  This definition allows for an individual who is struggling to have targeted intervention if their behaviour is not 'normal'.

  
  

  For example, their distorted thinking could be addressed to help their behaviour become normal, as if their thinking is biased then their behaviour will be too.
• + Positive


  This definition focuses on what is helpful and desirable for the individual, rather than the other way round.

  
  

  This idea allows for clear goals to be set and focused upon to achieve ideal mental health, and, in Jahoda's opinion, to achieve normality.
• - Feasibility


  The criteria outlined by Jahoda makes ideal mental health (normality) practically impossible to achieve.

  
  

  This means that the majority of the population, using this definition, would be abnormal.
• - Ethnocentrism


  The criteria of autonomy makes the collectivist cultures, where the greater good and helping / relying on others is encouraged, seem abnormal.

  
  

  As most western cultures are individualist the criteria outlined by Jahoda seem a reasonable fit, but non-western cultures cannot relate to the criteria she outlines.

  
  

  This means that the definition is not generalisable to the rest of the world.
• Phobias


  Characterised by an excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation

  
  

  The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by the phobic situation.
• Specific phobias


  Anxiety produced by a specific object or situation
• Social anxiety


  Persistent, intense fear or anxiety about specific social situations

  
  

  Agoraphobia: Being afraid to leave environments they know are safe
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  Avoidance behaviour that can effect daily life and functioning

  
  

  Extreme responses in the presence of phobic stimuli
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  Extreme fear and anxiety in the presence of phobic stimuli
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  Irrational thoughts about the outcome of contact with the phobic stimuli

  
  

  The individual recognises that their thoughts are excessive or unreasonable.
• Two-process model


  Phobias are acquired through learning
• How are phobias acquired initially?

  Classical conditioning (learning by association)

  
  

  If an unpleasant emotion is paired with a stimulus, then the two become associated with each other through conditioning.
• How are phobias maintained?

  Operant conditioning (learning through rewards/punishments)

  
  

  The person avoids the phobic stimulus, and gains a reward for doing so.

  
  

  This maintains the phobia because the feared association is never 'unlearned'.
• Social learning theory and phobias

  Phobias can be initiated through modelling the behaviour of others.
• + Supporting evidence


  Watson and Rayner conditioned Little Albert to associate white rats with loud noise.

  
  

  This led to him developing a phobia. He also developed a phobia of all white, fluffy things (e.g. rabbits, cotton wool, Santa's beard).

  
  

  It suggests that phobias can be learnt through association, as suggested by the behaviourist approach.

  
  

  It supports the concept of stimulus generalisation as the phobias went beyond white rats.