Psychopathology

• Definitions of abnormality

  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
• Statistical infrequency

  A less common characteristic that is seen as abnormal
• Deviation from social norms

  Can be used to define abnormality by analysing a set of data using a bell curve graph
• Most people will cluster around the average, with a minute few that will be found on the extremes of the graph
• Deviation from the normal distribution - anyone clustering around the average
• Evaluation of statistical infrequency

  • Limitations: Not everyone unusual benefits from a label, Makes diagnosis redundant
  • Strengths: Unusual characteristics can be positive, Just because a behaviour is statistically abnormal doesn't mean it requires treatment, Can help in the diagnoses of disorders
• Deviation from social norms

  Behaviours diverging from the expected standards of behaviour from a community/culture, Categorised as abnormal because it offends their sense of what is acceptable
• Limitations of deviation from social norms

  • Cultural relativism - social norms vary for different cultures, Can lead to human rights abuse
• Strengths of deviation from social norms

  • Not a sole explanation, Has a real life application in the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder
• Failure to function adequately

  Occurs when someone is unable to cope with the demands of daily life
• Signs of failure to function adequately

  • Unable to maintain nutrition + hygiene
  • No longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, eg respecting personal space
  • Experiences severe personal distress
  • Maladaptive behaviour
• Limitations of failure to function adequately

  • Is it just a deviation from social norms?, Subjective judgements
• Strengths of failure to function adequately

  • Patient's perspective - attempts to include the subjective experience of an individual, Acknowledges experiences of the patients
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  When someone doesn't meet a set criteria for ideal mental health
• Criteria for ideal mental health (Marie Jahoda)

  • We have no symptoms of distress
  • Rational and can perceive ourselves and the world accurately
  • Can successfully work, love and enjoy leisure
  • Cope w stress
  • Self-actualise (reach potential)
• Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

  • Strengths: Comprehensive definition, Covers most of the reasons why someone would seek help from a mental health service
  • Limitations: Cultural relativism, Sets an unrealistic standard for mental health
• Phobia

  An irrational fear of an object or situation
• Types of phobias

  • Specific phobia
  • Social anxiety
  • Agoraphobia
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  • PANIC - crying, screaming or running away
  • ENDURANCE - remaining in the presence of a phobic stimulus
  • AVOIDANCE - making a conscious effort to avoid coming in contact w/ the phobia
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  • Anxiety - unpleasant state of high physiological arousal
  • Fear is experienced when in contact w the phobic stimulus
  • Emotional responses are unreasonable - fear is irrational
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  • Selective attention to the phobic stimulus
  • Irrational beliefs
  • Cognitive distortions
• The behavioural approach to explaining phobias

  1. Classical conditioning - learning by association

  2. Maintenance by operant conditioning
• Fear generalised to other white objects - a white rabbit and other objects resembling a mouse, caused the same fear response
• Evaluation of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

  • Strengths: Good explanatory power, Explained how phobias could be maintained over time
  • Limitations: Alternative explanation for avoidance behaviour, An incomplete explanation of phobias
• The behavioural approach to treating phobias

  1. Systematic desensitization

  2. Flooding
• Systematic desensitization


  Behavioural therapy used to reduce anxiety experienced by a phobic stimulus through classical conditioning
• Steps in systematic desensitization

  • The anxiety hierarchy
  • Relaxation
  • Exposure
• Evaluation of systematic desensitization

  • Strengths: It is effective, Acceptable to patients
  • Limitations: None mentioned
• Flooding


  Involves immediate exposure of phobic patients to the phobic stimulus, but without an anxiety hierarchy
• Evaluation of flooding


  • Strengths: Treatment is traumatic, Less effective for some types of phobias
• Depression


  A mental disorder characterised by low mood and energy levels
• Types of depression


  • Major depressive disorder
  • Persistent depressive disorder
  • Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
  • Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
• Behavioural characteristics of depression

  • Activity levels - lethargy, causes knock on effect on work, education, social life
  • Psychomotor agitation - struggling to relax, may end up pacing frequently
  • Disruption to sleep and eating - may experience insomnia , premature waking, hypersomnia
  • Weight gain/loss, changing eating habits
  • Aggression and self harm - verbally or physically aggressive, self harm, cutting, suicide
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  • Low mood - Feelings of worthlessness
  • Anger - Extreme anger towards self/others, can lead to aggressive behaviour
  • Lowered self-esteem - feeling less confident, self loathing
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  • Poor concentration - Unable to stick w tasks, focus + decision making
  • Focusing on the negative - Pay more attention on negative aspects of life
  • Bias to recalling negative events
  • Absolutist thinking - thinking in terms of 'black and white, when a situation is unfortunate, they see it as completely negative
• The cognitive approach to explaining depression

  Based on the idea a person's cognitions make them vulnerable to depression
• Struggling to relax


  • May end up pacing frequently
• Disruption to sleep and eating

  • May experience insomnia, premature waking, hypersomnia
• Aggression and self harm

  • Verbally or physically aggressive, self harm, cutting, suicide
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  • Low mood - Feelings of worthlessness
  • Anger - Extreme anger towards self/others, can lead to aggressive behaviour
  • Lowered self-esteem - feeling less confident, self loathing