lecture1and2

• Computer Architecture


  The attributes visible to the programmer, such as instruction set, number of bits used for data representation, I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques
• Computer Organization


  How the computer's features are implemented, such as control signals, interfaces, memory technology

  
• Examples of Computer Architectures

  • Von-Neumann Architecture
  • Harvard Architecture
  • Instruction Set Architecture
  • Micro-architecture
  • System Design
• Examples of Computer Organization


  • Organization of a single Accumulator
  • Organization of general registers
  • Stack organization
• Historically, and still today, the distinction between architecture and organization has been an important one
• Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer models, all with the same architecture but with differences in organization
• Architecture


  Those attributes visible to the programmer
• Organization


  How features are implemented
• The IAS computer, although not completed until 1952, is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers
• The transistor, which is smaller, cheaper, and generates less heat than a vacuum tube, can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to construct computers
• The second generation saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic and logic units and control units, the use of high-level programming languages, and the provision of system software with the computer
• The invention of the integrated circuit in 1958 revolutionized electronics and started the era of microelectronics
• Initially, only a few gates or memory cells could be reliably manufactured and packaged together. These early integrated circuits are referred to as Small-Scale Integration (SSI)
• As time went on, it became possible to pack more and more components on the same chip, reflecting the famous Moore's law
• Moore's law


  The number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year, and this pace continued into the near future

  
• The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970s but has sustained that rate ever since
• Each new generation is characterized by greater processing performance, larger memory capacity, and smaller size than the previous one
• With the introduction of large-scale integration (LSI), more than 1,000 components can be placed on a single integrated circuit chip
• Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) achieved more than 10,000 components per chip, while current Ultra-Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) chips can contain more than one billion components
• The first application of integrated circuit technology computers was the construction of the processor, and it was also found that this same technology could be used to construct memories
• What is the role of NIST within the United States Department of Commerce?

  NIST develops standards, guidelines, and best practices to help organizations improve their cybersecurity posture.
• Why is NIST considered a leading authority on cybersecurity?

  Because it provides guidance and frameworks that are widely adopted across the public and private sectors.
• What is one of the key responsibilities of NIST?

  Developing cybersecurity standards and guidelines.
• What are the key responsibilities of NIST?

  - Developing cybersecurity standards and guidelines - Conducting research on emerging cybersecurity technologies - Collaborating with industry and academia - Providing training and education programs - Maintaining the National Vulnerability Database
• What is the NIST Cybersecurity Framework?

  A widely-used set of guidelines and best practices to help organizations manage and reduce their cybersecurity risks.
• How does NIST ensure its guidance remains relevant?


  NIST continuously updates its guidance to address evolving cybersecurity threats and technologies.
• What is one of the key purposes of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework?

  To provide a common language and structure for organizations to discuss cybersecurity.
• What is quantum computing?

  An emerging field of computing that leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to perform computations.
• What are the key characteristics of quantum computing?

  - Superposition: Qubits can represent multiple values simultaneously. - Entanglement: The state of one qubit can depend on another. - Quantum algorithms: Specialized algorithms can break cryptographic systems. - Exponential computational power: Quantum computers can perform certain computations much faster than classical computers.
• How could quantum computers break encryption methods like RSA?

  By efficiently factoring large numbers, which is the basis for RSA encryption.
• Why are quantum computers considered a cybersecurity threat?

  Because they can break certain cryptographic systems much faster than classical computers.
• What is entanglement in quantum computing?

  It is a phenomenon where the state of one qubit is dependent on the state of another, even if they are physically separated.