Gender

• Sex


  Biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy (in terms of male/female)
• Gender


  Psychological/cultural differences between males/females including attitudes, behaviours, or social roles (in terms of feminine/masculine)
• Sex role stereotypes


  Set of beliefs/preconceived ideas on what's expected or appropriate for males/females in a given society
• Gender dysphoria


  For most, biological sex and gender identity correspond as most males/females identify as masculine/feminine. However, some experience gender identity disorder where their biological sex doesn't reflect their inside feelings or how they identify. Some undergo reassignment surgery to align their sexual identity with their gender identity.
• Androgyny


  Co-existence of masculine/feminine characteristics in 1 person. Not associated with a sex, males/females can be androgynous. Beneficial as a person may act masculine in some situations e.g., dominance in the workplace, and feminine in other situations e.g., nurturing at home. May also simultaneously blend elements of both.
• Smith and Lloyd (1978) investigated gender stereotyping
• Smith and Lloyd (1978) study

  4–6-month-old babies (irrespective of sex) were dressed ½ the time in boys and ½ in girls' clothes. Adults were participants and their interaction with babies were observed.
• Madhura (2014) - MRIS on 949 men + women. Found women's hemispheres have better connections between hemispheres and men's display more activity in individual parts, especially at the cerebellum (motor control)
• Imperato McGinley et al (1974) aimed to demonstrate that individuals can change their gender role/identity
• Imperato McGinley et al (1974) study

  Case study on 4 males from the Batista family. Had a mutant gene from ancestors carried by both parents so didn't follow the normal course of sexual development. They were born with external female features and raised as girls but at puberty, developed male sex organs over female genitalia.
• Bem created and tested the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
• Bem's BSRI


  50 males + 50 females rated 200 traits for desirability for men and women, 20 chosen as desirable for men (analytical), 20 women (caring) and 20 gender neutral (happy). These were then used on the BSRI, where 1000 people rated themselves between 1 and 7 on each trait. If scored similarly on masculine and feminine traits, labelled 'androgynous. If score was significantly different on 2 scales, labelled as 'sex types'
• Chromosomes


  In the nucleus of living cells carrying genetic info in the form of genes, pair 23 determines biological sex
• Hormone


  Chemical substance circulating in the blood controlling/regulating cell activity or organs
• Testosterone


  Hormone from the androgen group produced in male testes (small amounts in ovaries). Associated with aggression.
• Oestrogen


  Primary female hormone, important in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system
• Oxytocin


  Hormone causing the contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulating lactation. Lust, labour + love hormone
• Role of chromosomes


  46 chromosomes in pairs. XX – Female XY – male. Egg cells produced by ovaries have an X chromosome. ½ sperm carry X chromosomes and ½ Y leading to sex. All foetuses have the same underdeveloped sex organs, Y chromosome carries SRY gene (sex determining region Y) causing testes to develop, forming androgens causing the embryo to be male. Absence of SRY gene causes embryo to develop ovaries and be female.
• Role of hormones


  Prenatally, hormones act on the development of the brain and reproductive organs. At puberty, the hypothalamus releases a hormone affecting the anterior pituitary gland, causing the gonads to become active. Burst of hormonal activity triggers secondary sexual characteristics like puberty hair. Males + females produce the same hormones in different concentrations: Testosterone: male hormone controlling development of male sex organs at 8 weeks of foetal development. Oestrogen: female hormone determining female sexual characteristics + menstruation. Oxytocin: females produce more of this than males. Stimulates lactation, reduces cortisol (stress) and facilitates bonding. Released in large concentrations in labour + after, allowing mums to 'fall in love' with babies. Both sexes produce this in equal quantities in 'amorous' activities even though stereotyped that males are less interested in intimacy and closeness.
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  Males with an extra X chromosome so XXY genotype. 2/3 of people who have it are unaware. Affects between 1 in 500 and 1 in 1000 people. Characteristics: Physical - Less body hair, Breast development at puberty, Softening/rounding of body contours, Long gangly limbs, Underdeveloped genitals (infertile). Psychological - Poor language skills + reading ability, Passive and shy, Lack of sexual activity, Doesn't respond well to stress, Problems with memory and problem solving.
• Turner's syndrome


  Females with an absence of X chromosome so XO genotype. 45 chromosomes instead of 46. Affects 1 in 5000 people. Characteristics: Physical - Ovaries don't develop – infertile, Don't develop breasts at puberty – broad 'shield' chest, Low set ears, Webbed neck, Hips not bigger than waist, Retain appearance of pre-pubescent girls. Psychological - Higher than average reading ability, Lower than average spatial, visual + maths skills, Socially immature, Difficulty fitting in.
• Characteristics of individuals with atypical sex chromosomes


  • Visual + maths skills
  • Socially immature
  • Difficulty fitting in
• EVALUATION


  (atypical sex chromosomes)
• STRENGTHS


  • Research into KS and TS has practical applications as there's been therapies developed to improve the quality and length of their life
  • Treating stunned growth in TS by application of growth hormones and treating KS with testosterone
  • Shows research into gender in psych has a positive effect on human experiences as symptoms can be treated and people can work and pay taxes
  • Earlier diagnosis of atypical patterns leads to more positive outcomes
• WEAKNESSES


  • Issues with the sample as only those with severe symptoms are identified so the picture of symptoms can be distorted
  • Lack of generalisability so can't assume the atypical patterns affect everyone the same way
  • Many with KS + TS don't experience sig cognitive or psychological issues and are successful academically
  • Issues with making assumptions of behaviours associated with KS + TS being atypical as it can be subjective and require inaccurate independent judgement to make a diagnosis
• Kohlberg's theory


  Maturational theory: a child's understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age and runs parallel to intellectual development as the child matures biologically
• Questions to test a child's understanding of gender


  • Are you a boy or girl?
  • When you're 10 will you be a boy or girl?
  • When you grow up will you be a man or woman?
  • If you have children of your own when you grow up, will you be a mummy/daddy?
  • If you wanted to, could you be a mummy/daddy (opposite to answer above)?
  • If you put on boys/girls' clothes, would you be a boy/girl?
• Stages of a child's understanding of gender (Kohlberg)


  • Gender identity (2-3 years): Can identify themselves and others as boy/girl without awareness that sex is permanent
  • Gender stability (4 years): Realising they'll stay the same gender and that it's consistent over time, but can't apply this to others
  • Gender constancy (6 years): Recognise gender (theirs and others) is constant over time and situations, not fooled by external changes
• Strengths of Kohlberg's theory

  • Evidence supporting the sequences of stages
  • Comparison with Social Learning Theory shows Kohlberg's theory has a biological basis
  • Cross-cultural research supports the stages are universal
• Weaknesses of Kohlberg's theory

  • Methodological issues with using interviews with young children
  • Doesn't account for social/cultural influences on gender development
• Gender Schema Theory


  Maturational theory suggesting understanding of gender increases with age, where children actively structure their own learning instead of passively observing and imitating
• Concepts of Gender Schema Theory

  • Gender schema acquired with gender identity: An organised set of beliefs and expectations re gender derived from experience which guides a person's understanding of their own gender and gender appropriate behaviour
  • Schema direct behaviour and self-understanding: Schema increase behaviours and personality traits, based on stereotypes, providing a framework that directs experiences and the child's understanding of itself
  • Ingroups and outgroups: Children have a better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroup) and only develop elaborate schemas for both genders around 8 years old
• Strengths of Gender Schema Theory

  • Can account for cultural differences in stereotypical gender appropriate behaviour
  • Contrasts other explanations of gender like psychodynamic theory
  • Evidence supporting the theory from studies like Martin and Halverson
• Weaknesses of Gender Schema Theory

  • Reductionist explanation without considering other factors like social influences
  • May underestimate children's ability to use gender labels on themselves
• Pre-phallic children


  Freud's theory suggests children have no concept of gender identity or understanding of male/female prior to the phallic stage (3-6 years) where gender development occurs
• Oedipus complex


  In the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings for their mother and a jealous/murderous hatred for their father who stands in the way of possessing their mother. This leads to castration anxiety and the boy identifying with his father.
• Electra complex


  In the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and see themselves and their mother in competition for their father's love. This leads to resentment towards their mother.
• Phallic stage


  3rd stage of gender development, occurs at 3-6 years where the focus of pleasure for the child switches to the genitals
• Oedipus complex


  Boys develop incestuous feelings for their mother and harbour a jealous/murderous hatred for their father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother
• Castration anxiety


  Boys recognise their father is more powerful so they fear they'll be castrated