Theories of Human Development Throughout the Lifespan (e.g., Physical, Social, Emotional, Cognitive, Behavioral)

• Social work theories


  General explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method
• Theory


  May explain human behavior by describing how humans interact with each other or react to certain stimuli
• Because human behavior is so complex, numerous theories are utilized to guide practice
• Factors that influence people and their behaviors

  • Individual characteristics or differences
  • Interpersonal factors
  • Institutional factors
  • Community factors
  • Public policy
• Individual characteristics or differences


  • Unique to each client, such as knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, general personality style, and disposition
• Interpersonal factors


  • Social support, social cohesion, work relationships, friendships, and/or religious belonging
• Institutional factors


  • Rules, regulations, and informal structures in the organizations where clients live and work
• Community factors


  • Social environment in which clients live, including social resources/networks and community norms
• Public policy


  • Regulations and laws such as wearing seat belts, not using drugs, and/or limits on physical aggression
• Ecological perspective or model


  Hierarchical factors that influence people and their behaviors
• Theoretical perspectives in social work

  • Systems
  • Conflict
  • Rational choice
  • Social constructionist
  • Psychodynamic
  • Developmental
  • Social behavioral
  • Humanistic
• Systems


  • Made up of interrelated parts; each part impacts all other parts, as well as the system as a whole; the dynamic interactions within, between, and among systems produce both stability and change
• Conflict


  • Clients try to advance their own interests over the interests of others as they compete for scarce resources; power is unequally divided and some social groups dominate others; members of nondominant groups become alienated from society; social change is driven by conflict
• Rational Choice


  • Clients are rational and goal directed and human interaction involves exchange of social resources such as love, approval, information, money, and physical labor; clients have self-interest and try to maximize rewards and minimize costs; power comes from unequal resources in exchanges
• Social Constructionist


  • Social reality is created when clients, in social interaction, develop a common understanding of their world; clients are influenced by social processes that are grounded in customs, as well as cultural and historical contexts
• Psychodynamic


  • Unconscious, as well as conscious, mental activity serves as the motivating force in human behavior; early childhood experiences are central and clients may become overwhelmed by internal or external demands; defense mechanisms are used to avoid becoming overwhelmed
• Developmental


  • Human development occurs in defined, age-related stages that build upon one another and are distinct; human development is a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors
• Social Behavioral


  • Human behavior is learned when clients interact with the environment through association, reinforcement, and imitation; all human problems can be formulated as undesirable behavior and can be changed through techniques such as classical and operant conditioning
• Humanistic Perspective


  • Each client is unique and is responsible for the choices he or she makes; clients have the capacity to change themselves because human behavior is driven by a desire for growth, personal meaning, and competence; behaving in ways that are not consistent with the true self causes clients anxiety
• Human beings are inherently social
• Erik Erikson


  Interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self; saw personality as developing throughout the life course and looked at identity crises as the focal point for each stage of human development
• Erikson's stages of development

  • Trust Versus Mistrust
  • Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
  • Initiative Versus Guilt
  • Industry Versus Inferiority
  • Identity Versus Role Confusion
  • Intimacy Versus Isolation
  • Generativity Versus Stagnation
  • Ego Integrity Versus Despair
• Trust Versus Mistrust


  • From birth to 1 year of age, children begin to learn the ability to trust others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s); if trust develops successfully, the child gains confidence and security in the world around him or her and is able to feel secure even when threatened; unsuccessful completion of this stage can result in an inability to trust, and therefore a sense of fear about the inconsistent world, which may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and feelings of mistrust in the world around them
• Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt


  • Between the ages of 1 and 3, children begin to assert their independence by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, and so on; if children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world; if children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others while lacking self-esteem and feeling a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities
• Initiative Versus Guilt


  • Around age 3 and continuing to age 6, children assert themselves more frequently; they begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others; if given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions; conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt; they may feel like nuisances to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking self-initiative