External factors

• Language


  Hubbs-Tait et al - when parents that use language to challenge their children to evaluate their own understanding or abilities , cognitive performance improves. Feinstein - this is most likely educated parents.

  Bernstein - The Restricted Code: typically w/c, limited vocab, and based on the use of grammatically simple sentences. The speaker assumes the listener shares the same set of experiences. The Elaborated Code: Typically m/c and has a wider vocab and is based on longer, grammatically more complex sentences.
• Parents education


  Douglas - w/c parents placed less value on education and less ambitious for their children so lower levels of motivation & achievement.

  Educated parents’ parenting style = consistent discipline & high expectations of their children. Less educated parents = harsh/inconsistent discipline, child fails to learn independence and self-control. Educated parents also are more aware of what is needed for successful education and will seek more help with childrearing.

  Bernstein and Young -m/c mothers more likely to buy educational toys etc that stimulate intellectual development.
• Sugarman = 4 key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement in the w/c subculture:

  Fatalism: A belief in fate – ‘whatever will be, will be’ and there is nothing you can do to change your status.

  Collectivism: Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual.

  Immediate gratification: Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future.

  Present-time orientation: Seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long-term goals or plans.
• Housing


  Overcrowding is common in working-class houses and has a direct effect by making it hard for the children to study at home e.g. no study space, disturbed sleep from sharing beds/rooms etc. Children in crowded houses also run a greater risk of suffering indirect effects such as increased likelihood of accidents due to overcrowding, cold or damp housing, or psychological distress from moving around temporary accommodation on a regular basis – all resulting in absence from school.
• Diet and Health


  Marilyn Howard = young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals, which can mean weakened immune systems, so time off school and lack of concentration in class. Wilkinson - that among 10 year olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders which all have a negative impact on the child’s education.

  Blanden and Machin - children from low-income families were more likely to engage in ‘externalising’ behaviours (e.g. fighting and temper tantrums) which disrupt their schooling.
• Fear of debt


  Callendar and Jackson - W/c students are more debt averse and saw more costs than benefits in going to university. W/c over 5x less likely to apply than m/c.

  W/c students who go to university are less likely to get financial help from their families.

  Diane Reay - that more w/c students would tend to choose a uni near their home, so they could save money by living at home and save on travel costs. They were also more likely to get a job and work part-time to help fund their studies, so would be less likely to gain a higher level degree.
• Cultural Capital


  Bourdieu - both cultural and material factors contribute to ed achievement. He uses the term ‘capital’ to explain why the middle-class are more successful and identifies ‘educational capital’ and ‘cultural capital’. M/c generally possess more of all three types.

  He argues through their socialisation, m/c children develop intellectual interests and an understanding of what the ed system requires for success. So have an advantage.

  But school devalues w/c children's cultures as ‘rough’ and inferior, and their lack of cultural capital leads to exam failure.
• Educational and Economic Capital


  M/c children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the demands of the school curriculum and gain qualifications.

  Wealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition.

  M/c parents are also more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a good school. This is now known as ‘selection by mortgage’ as it drives up the costs of houses near to successful schools and excludes working-class families.
• The Myth of Cultural Deprivation 


  Keddie describes cultural deprivation as a ‘myth’ and sees it as a victim-blaming explanation. She dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background. She argues that w/c children are culturally different, not culturally deprived. They fail because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by middle-class values.

  Troyna and Williams - the problem isn't the child’s language but the school’s attitude towards it. Teachers have a ‘speech hierarchy’.