The idea of what needs to be measured (ex. how good someone is at being a quarterback)
Operational variable
How a variable is defined and measured (ex. age, height, scores)
Correlational study
Two or more variables are systematically measured (predict)
Observational study
Researchers observe individuals without manipulation or intervention (describe)
Experimental study
Carefully orchestrated series of events (procedure) established by the team and followed so that every single participant's experience is NEARLY identical (causality)
Independent variable
Expected cause; the variable the researcher controls; condition to which participants are assigned
Dependent variable
Expected outcome; not manipulated by researcher; is measured; we expect it to change systematically as we vary exposure to the independent variable
A correlational study can be used to predict results, but cannot determine whether one variable caused another. It cannot establish cause and effect.
An experimental study can establish cause and effect, however is done in an artificial environment that might not reflect real life.
Internal validity
Extent to which we are certain differences in the dependent variable are due only to variability on the independent variable (aspects of the study)
External validity
Extent to which findings generalize to the real world (outward facing aspects)
Random sampling
Every person in the population of interest had an equal chance of being invited (or not invited) to participate
Random assignment
Each person in the study has equal chance of being assigned to any condition
Random sampling is about who is in the study, while random assignment is about how people are allocated
Sample
Subpopulation of group researcher is interested in
Yawning, blinking, brushing teeth, pull away from something hot, jumping when scared
Examples of controlled thinking
Taking notes in class, complimenting someone, holding the door, planning ahead, gift giving
Schemas
Mental structures help us to organize knowledge or information
Stereotype
When we assign a specific characteristic or trait to a person simply because of their membership to a group
Schemas are not necessarily aligned with group membership, but stereotypes are
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Expectation about another's behavior that comes true because observer (person holding expectation) acts in ways that bring it about
Self-fulfilling prophecy is different from a schema because it describes a sequence of events necessary for confirming a specific belief or expectancy, not confirming a general structure
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make judgments (judgments made with little effort, reflexive, non-conscious)
Availability heuristic
Judgement based on how easy it is to bring an example to mind
Representative heuristic
Judgement about something based on how similar it is to the typical case
Social perception
Judgments we make about others; draw meaning from other's behaviors; non-verbal behavior (faces, body language)
Initial impressions are important because they are often lasting
Primacy effect
Tendency to remember what was encountered first, related to recall
Initial impressions last because of primacy effect and they influence the way we interpret other information about the target person
Belief perseverance
Tendency to stick with an initial judgement even when provided with evidence suggesting it may be incorrect
Attribution
We think is cause or reason why
Internal attribution
Person behaved that way because of trait, personal quality, it is who they are
External attribution
Person behaved that way because of the situation, circumstance, not because of who they are
Someone snapped at you...(attribution)
Internal attribution: impatient person
External attribution: poor test grade
Fundamental attribution error
Overestimate the extent to which behavior is caused by the person and to underestimate the role of the situation
Covariation model: Consensus
How other people behave towards stimuli
Covariation model: Distinctiveness
How actor behaves towards other stimuli
Covariation model: Consistency
How person behaves towards that stimuli over time and circumstance