Psychopathology

• One strength of statistical infrequency is its usefulness.


  Used in clinical settings, to assess the severity and form part of a diagnosis. E.g. A diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ below 70 or a score of 30+ on Beck’s depression inventory indicating severe depression.
• Statistical infrequency doesn't account for positive characteristics.


  Someone with an IQ above 130 wouldn’t be viewed as abnormal, nor someone with a low score on BDI. Not sufficient as a sole basis for defining abnormality. Can lead to negative labelling.
• One strength of deviation from social norms is its usefulness.


  Used in clinical practice - holds value in psychiatry. For example, characteristics of antisocial personality disorder are failure to conform to culturally accceptable behaviour i.e. recklessness, and agression (all of which deviate from norms).
• Deviations from social norms vary between cultures.


  One may be labelled as abnormal using others' standards as opposed to theirs.

  E.g. hearing voices is a sign of a message from ancestors to some but would be viewed as abnormality in the UK.Meaning it is difficult to judge.
• Failure to function represents a sensible threshold.


  Most will have symptoms of mental disorder at some point (Mind - 25% in the UK).

  Many press on only seeking help when ceasing to function. 

  This means those who need help most can be targeted.
• Failure to function may mean labelling non-standard life choices as abnormal.


  Those who favour high-risk leisure activities or unusual spiritual practices could be classed unreasonably as irrational or a danger to one’s self.This means those who don’t conform to societal norms may be labelled abnormal and have restricted freedom of choice.
• Jahoda's ideal mental health is a highly comprehensive definition.


  It covers most of the reasons we might seek/be referred for help.This Means MH can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals taking different viewpoints i.e. symptom vs self-actualisation standpoint.CA: standards may be too high and unrealistic to achieve at the same time.
• Ideal mental health isn't equally applicable across all cultures.


  The criteria are formed in the context of the US and Europe. The concept of self-actualisation would be dismissed as self-indulgent in much of the world.Defining success in work, social and love lives differ.
• Empirical evidence for behavioural explanations of phobias.


  Sue et al (1994) - those with phobias often recall a specific event when they appeared (e.g. bitten by a dog).Supporting that the neutral stimulus becomes associated with et unconditioned stimulus resulting in a phobia.
• Behavioural explanations are an incomplete model.


  Di Nardo (1998) suggested not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia, arguing for a genetic vulnerability. Classical conditioning may not be the primary explanation.
• Behavioural explanation is reductionist.


  The two-process model reduces phobias to the constituent elements, classical and operant, explaining behaviour. Though this allows for greater depth but fails to consider other components (i.e. cognitive to explain irrational beliefs).A more holistic approach would be beneficial.
• Real-world applicability of Beck's negative triad.


  Cohen et al (2019) concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows for the screening of young people identifying those most at risk to then be monitored.Understanding vulnerability can be applied in CBT, to alter those cognitions, making them more resilient.
• Suppotive evidence for Beck's negative triad.


  Clark and Beck (1999) found cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed people but they preceded the depression.Confirmed by Cohen et al (2019).But as Beck was involved in the research it is vulnerable to researcher bias.
• Ellis's ABC explanation allowed for the development of REBT.


  The idea is that vigorously arguing with a depressed person can alter irrational beliefs.David et al (2018) support this idea as well as saying it relieves symptoms.
• Ellis's ABC doesn't provide a full explanation.

  Many cases of depression aren’t traceable to life events, with the cause not being obvious - endogenous depression.Due to the lack of an ‘activating event’ Ellis’s model cannot explain.
• Supportive evidence for CBT's effectiveness.


  March et al (2007) compared CBT to antidepressants and a combination of both, treating 327 adolescents.

  81% of individual and 86% of combination groups improved.

  The first source of treatment for NHS is also cost-effective due to the typical length of treatment.
• CBT may not always be suitable.


  Depression may be so severe patients cannot motivate themselves to engage with CBT. The complex rational thinking also makes it unsuitable for those with learning disabilities. However, Lewis and Lewis (2016) found it was as effective for severe depression.Taylor et al (2008) concluded when used appropriately it can be effective for those with learning disabilities.
• CBT overemphasises cognition.


  McCusker (2014) stated this may result in minimising the importance of the patient’s living circumstances.For those living in poverty, it would be more beneficial to have help to change their circumstances, not their cognitions.
• The biological explanation of OCD is reductionist.


  Reduces the complex behaviour of OCD down to low levels of serotonin.In doing so it ignores environmental factors.Cromer et al (2007) found over 50% of clients in their sample with OCD had experienced a traumatic event in their past.An interactionist approach may be more beneficial.
• Support for the biological explanation from twin studies (genetic - OCD).


  Nedstadt et al (2010) reviewed twin studies finding that 68% of MZ twins share OCD as opposed to 31% of DZ. Family studies have also found the risk is 4x higher if a family member holds a diagnosis.
• Support for the biological explanation from Nedstadt et al.


  They found OCD symptoms also overlap with other conditions biological in origin (e.g. Parkinson’s).Antidepressants working purely on serotonin are effective in reducing symptoms.

  But this is correlational research so cause and effect cannot be established.