Approaches Paper 2

• Wilhelm Wundt


  Opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879
• The opening of Wundt's institute is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology
• Wundt


  • Separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind in a more structured way, with the emphasis being on objective measurement and control
• Structuralism


  Wundt's belief that consciousness could be broken down (or reduced) to its basic elements and thus the structure of the mind could be deduced
• Wundt's introspection


  1. Highly trained assistants would be given a stimulus such as a ticking metronome and would reflect on the experience

  2. They would report what the stimulus made them think and feel

  3. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person (standardisation being a key feature of modern scientific research)
• Wundt's method of introspection did not remain a fundamental tool of psychological experimentation past the early 1920's
• Wundt's greatest contribution was to show that psychology could be a valid experimental science
• Topic Features


  • Classical conditioning
  • Operant conditioning
  • Social learning theory
• Behaviourist Approach


  A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
• Classical Conditioning


  Learning by association. A neutral stimulus, when paired with a second stimulus can, by association, elicit the same response as the second stimulus could by itself
• Operant Conditioning


  A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
• Reinforcement


  A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated
• Assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach

  • The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
  • It is not concerned with investigating mental processes
  • Early behaviourists, such as John B. Watson (1913) rejected introspection as it involved too many vague and immeasurable concepts
  • Behaviourists suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
• Classical Conditioning


  Learning through association, first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov
• Classical Conditioning


  1. Neutral stimulus paired with another stimulus

  2. Neutral stimulus gradually elicits the same response as the other stimulus
• Operant Conditioning


  The idea that learning is an active process, where human and animal behaviour is shaped by consequences
• Types of Consequences in Operant Conditioning

  • Positive reinforcement
  • Negative reinforcement
  • Punishment
• Shock collars to discourage barking

  • Punishment
• Feeding a 'treat' when a dog offers his paw when asked

  • Positive reinforcement
• Skinner Box studies


  1. Hungry rat in box with lever

  2. Rat accidentally knocks lever, receives food pellet

  3. Rat learns to press lever to receive food
• Behaviourism


  • Brought the language and methods of the natural sciences into psychology
  • Emphasised the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication
• Behaviourism


  • Influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status
• Real-world applications of operant conditioning

  • Token economy systems in prisons, psychiatric wards, and schools
  • Explaining phobic disorders, addictions, and obsessive compulsive disorder
• Behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process by reducing it to observable behaviour alone, ignoring the role of mental processes
• Social Learning Theory


  A development of the behaviourist approach proposed by Albert Bandura, which suggests that learning occurs through observation and imitation of others
• Assumptions of Social Learning Theory

  • Bandura agreed with behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learnt from experience
  • Bandura suggested that people learn through the observation and imitation of the behaviours of others within a social context
  • Factors such as thinking may mediate between stimulus and response
• Social Learning Theory


  1. Direct learning through experience

  2. Indirect learning through observation and imitation of others
• Vicarious Reinforcement


  Imitation is more likely to take place if the observed behaviour is seen to be rewarded rather than punished
• Meditational Processes in Social Learning Theory

  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Motor reproduction (imitation)
  • Motivation
• Aggressive behaviour in children

  Observed through modelling of aggressive behaviour by adults
• Development of fear of spiders


  Observed through modelling of fearful behaviour towards spiders
• Types of Reinforcement Observed

  • Positive
  • Negative
  • No consequence
• Identification


  People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify, called role models
• Bandura et al. (1961) study


  • Children who observed an adult behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll later displayed more aggressive behaviour towards the doll themselves
• Bandura and Walters (1963) study


  • Children who observed an adult being praised for aggressive behaviour towards a Bobo doll later imitated the aggressive behaviour, while children who observed the adult being punished showed the least aggression
• Social Learning Theory


  • Less determinist than the behaviourist approach, as it emphasises reciprocal determinism where we both influence and are influenced by our environment
• Different behaviours have emerged over time from culture to culture
• Among the !Kung San tribe in the Kalahari desert, aggression is not valued, not displayed and is therefore extremely rare


  • Among other tribes and indeed among many subcultures in western societies, aggression is highly valued
• Social Learning Theory


  Helps explain cultural differences in behaviour
• Social Learning Theory


  • Less determinist than the behaviourist approach
  • Emphasises reciprocal determinism - we are not merely influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviour we chose to perform