Psychopathology

• what are the definitions of abnormality

  Statistical deviation, deviation from social norms, Failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health
• what is statistical deviation

  This is where a certain behaviour or characteristic is statistically uncommon/rare within society
• Statistical deviation limitation - abnormal behaviours might not be undesirable

  One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that something that is considered abnormal as a result of it being uncommon within society may not actually be undesirable. for example a high iq is statistically rare but it isn't undesirable. It is more desirable than having a low iq which is also considered to be abnormal.
• Statistical deviation limitation - abnormal could occur frequently

  One Limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that certain behaviours that are abnormal could occur frequently. for instance, it is said that at least 10 % of the population will have depression at some point in their lives therefore making this more common. this could lead to misdiagnosis because as more and more people get depression it becomes more statistically common and will no longer qualify as abnormal according to the normal distribution in which statistical infrequency is measured.
• Statistical deviation limitation - cultural bias

  One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it is culturally biased. for example cultural differences are not taken into consideration within the normal distribution when defining abnormality. Therefore something that may be rare within one culture may in fact be common within another.
• what is deviation from social norms

  This is when someone is considered to be abnormal if they go against the unwritten rules about what is acceptable within a society
• One strength of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that people can get the help that they need. for example when someone deviates from what we perceive to be acceptable within society we can intervene to help someone get the help they need.
• One limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it is culturally relative. for example what may be acceptable within one culture may not be in another culture. For example, someone who hears voices may be considered abnormal in one culture and diagnosed with schizophrenia but not in certain african cultures this is perfectly acceptable because they believe they have contact with their ancestors.
• One limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it lacks temporal validity. This is because societal norms change over time. this means that there is a lack of consensus between generations making abnormality difficult to judge. for example, homosexuality was considered to be illegal in the 1960's but it is perfectly acceptable now.
• what is failure to function adequately

  This is when someone struggle to cope with the everyday demands of living. this means that they struggle to live independently within society and cause personal distress or distress to others.
• One strength of failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality is that it takes into consideration how the individual feels. This definition focuses on the individual and how they are managing in everyday life from their perspective, so if someone feels as though they are struggling they will be deemed abnormal and get help.
• One limitation of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that abnormality doesn't always stop them from functioning. For example some people can still hold down a job and live independently with no one picking up on their abnormalities. For example, someone experiences distorted thinking or intrusive thought could be experiencing personal distress but unless something is said they are considered to be fine and their abnormalities are missed.
• One limitation of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that something that might seem abnormal is actually normal. For example, when someone is grieving they might show characteristics of FFA such as being not able to get out of bed, but this is perfectly normal.
• what is deviation from ideal mental health

  This is when abnormality is defined by an absence of characteristics from within Jahoda's criteria.
• What is Jahoda's criteria

  • self actualisation
  • accurate perception of reality
  • positive attitudes of oneself
  • autonomy
  • environmental mastery
  • resisting stress
• One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health is that it is unrealistic. For instance, jacodas six principles makes normality pretty impossible to achieve. According to this definition of abnormality most of the population would be considered to be abnormal.
• Phobia characteristics:

  • Behavioural = panic, avoidance, endurance
  • Emotional = anxiety, feelings of dread, unreasonable emotional responses
  • Cognitive = selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions
• What is the behaviourist explanation for phobias

  The two process model
• what is the two process model

  The phobia is first learnt through classical conditioning and then maintained through operant conditioning.

  Classical conditioning: The phobia can be learnt through stimulus response associations.

  Operant conditioning: Phobias lead to negative reinforcement through anxiety avoidance. This is where avoiding phobic situations allows you to escape the anxiety you would have experienced if you remained in that situation.
• One strength of the behaviourist explanation for phobias is that there is research to support. For example, Little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a white rat. Being presented with a rat (ns) with a loud bang(ucs) caused fear (ucr). later he learnt to associate the rat with the loud bang so that the rat (cs) caused fear(cr). This therefore supports the role of classical conditioning within the formation of a phobia.
• One strength of the behaviourist explanation for phobias is that it has practical applications. For example it has lead to the effective treatment of phobias such as systematic desensitisation and flooding. Systematic desensitisation involves forming an anxiety hierarchy and working through the levels while remaining relaxed. while flooding is when you are immediately exposed to your most phobic situation.
• One limitation of the behaviourist explanation for phobias is that it is an incomplete explanation. For example there are some phobias that don't follow trauma such as spiders snakes and heights. These are common phobias to have and yet trauma involving them are uncommon. This suggests that there are other factors involved in explaining phobias than just stimulus response associations therefore it is an environmental reductionist.
• What is systematic desensitisation

  This is where the aim is to replace an undesirable behaviour of fear with a more desirable one such as relaxation. the first step is to make an anxiety hierarchy starting with the least phobic situation at the bottom and the most at the top. Then patients are taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing or meditation. Then patients work through the hierarchy while maintaining relaxed using the techniques learnt.
• strength of systematic desensitisation - lower attrition rate 


  One strength of systematic desensitization is that there are lower attrition rates(dropout rates) because patients are more accepting of the treatment. This is because it involves gradually moving through the hierarchy when patients are relaxed and comfortable on the stage they're on. While flooding involves immediately exposing them to their phobia.
• Limitation of systematic desensitisation - doesn't work for all phobias


  One limitation of systematic desensitisation is that it doesn't work for al phobias . For instance, some phobias are not developed as a result of trauma. There are some phobias that develop as a result of evolution such as height. it is believed that having a phobia of heights has a survival benefit and that these phobias are not effectively treated through systematic desensitisation.
• limitation of systematic desensitisation - long process

  One limitation of systematic desensitisation is that it is a long process. This is because its patients are only able to move onto the next stage on the anxiety hierarchy when they are happy and relaxed within the current stage that they are in.
• what is flooding 


  Flooding is when patients are immediately exposed to the object or situation that they fear most.
• strength of flooding - cheaper treatment

  One strength of flooding as a treatment of phobias is that it is a cheaper treatment. This is because it is a quicker process than systematic desensitisation as patients are directly exposed to the things that they fear most. This is a strength because patients are treated quicker therefore making it more cost effective
• Limitation of flooding - ethical issues

  One limitation of flooding is that it has some ethical issues. for instance flooding is less ethical than systematic desensitisation this is because this treatment is highly traumatic for the patients causing them a great level of anxiety. Although patients provide informed consent, it can be argued that this method of treatment does not protect patients from harm because it causes them a lot of distress. This is why there are higher attrition rates which means flooding might be a waste of time and money if patients don't finish the treatment.
• what is OCD

  obsessive compulsive disorder
• characteristics of OCD

  • Behavioural = repetitive compulsions, avoidance, compulsions that reduce anxiety
  • Emotional = anxiety/distress, guilt/disgust, depression
  • Cognitive = obsessions, catastrophic thinking, hyper vigilant
• what are the biological explanations for OCD

  • Genetics
  • serotonin
  • Brain structure
• Biological explanation for OCD - Genetics

  Specific genes that can be inherited from biological parents have been found to increase the genetic vulnerability to OCD.
• Research to support genetic explanation for OCD

  Billet did a twin study and found a concordance rate of 68% for MZ twins but only 31% for DZ twins. This suggests that MZ twins are almost twice as likely to suffer from OCD than DZ twins because they are more genetically similar. this therefore supports the idea that genes influence the development of OCD.
• Limitation of Billet's family study 


  One limitation is that the concordance rate for MZ twins was not 100% which it would be if OCD was entirely determined by genetics. This suggests that there are other non-genetic factors involved in the development of OCD such as the environment.
• Biological explanations for OCD - serotonin 


  The neurotransmitter serotonin is believed to play a role in OCD. Serotonin regulates mood and a lower level of serotonin is associated with OCD.
• Hu (2006)


  Hu compared 169 OCD sufferers with 253 non sufferers. He found serotonin levels to be lower in OCD sufferers which supports the idea of lower serotonin levels being associated with the development of OCD.
• Biological explanations of OCD - Brain structure

  The orbital prefrontal cortex converts sensory information into thoughts and actions. PET scans reveal higher activity levels in the prefrontal cortex of patients suffering with OCD. One suggestion is that this heightened activity in the prefrontal cortex increases the conversion of sensory information into actions therefore resulting in compulsions.
• Limitation of biological explanation of OCD - biological reductionist

  One limitation is that it is a biological reductionist. this is because it ignores other factors such as cognition or learning in the development of OCD. For instance, some psychologists argue that OCD may be learnt through classical conditioning (for example, dirt) is associated with anxiety and this association is then maintain through operant conditioning, where a person avoids dirt and continually washes their hands. This hand washing reduces their anxiety and negatively reinforces their compulsions.
• Biological treatments for OCD

  • SSRIs
  • Benzodiazepines (BZ's)