unit 4 final exam

• Urine Formation


  1. Filtration

  2. Reabsorption

  3. Secretion
• Structures of a Nephron

  • Renal corpuscle
  • Renal tubule and collecting duct
  • Peritubular capillaries
  • Afferent arteriole
  • Efferent arteriole
• Glomerular filtration membrane


  3 layers: Glomerular endothelial cell, Basal lamina (acellular), Podocyte cells form filtration slits
• Hormonal Regulation


  • Aldosterone: Regulate electrolyte reabsorption and secretion
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Water reabsorption
• Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System


  1. BP decrease results in renin release by JG cells

  2. Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin I

  3. Angiotensin I converted to Angiotensin II: Decreases glomerular filtration rate, Enhances reabsorption of NA+, Cl–, and water, Stimulates release of aldosterone to reabsorb more Na+, Cl–, and water
• Male Reproductive System


  • Internal Genitalia: Testes – System of Ducts
  • Accessory glands: Seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral gland
  • External Genitalia: Scrotum and penis
• Role of Testes

  • Sperm Production
  • Makes Hormones
• Testes


  • Spermatogenic cells: begin sperm production at puberty
  • Sertoli or sustentacular cells: form junctions to create blood-testis barrier, nourish spermatogenic cells, carry out phagocytosis, control spermatogenic movement, produce fluid for transport, secrete hormone inhibin
  • Leydig (interstitial) cells: secrete testosterone
• Sperm

  • 300 million sperm per day produced
  • Sperm survive 48 hours in female reproductive tract
• Sperm Parts


  • Head: Nucleus, Acrosome
  • Neck
  • Tail: Centriole, mitochondria, middle, principle, and end piece
  • Flagellum
• Accessory Sex Glands


  • Seminal vesicles
  • Prostate
  • Bulbourethral or Cowper's glands
• Seminal Vesicles


  • Produce alkaline fluid with fructose, prostaglandins, clotting proteins
  • Approximately 60% of semen volume
• Prostate Gland


  • Produces citric acid, proteolytic enzymes (PSA), pepsinogen, lysozyme, amylase, hyaluronidase
  • Milky, acidic fluid (pH ~6.5)
  • Approximately 25% semen volume
• Bulbourethral/Cowper's Glands


  • Pea sized glands active during sexual arousal
  • Secrete alkaline and lubricating mucus
• Semen

  • Combination of sperm and seminal fluid
  • 2.5 - 5 mL per ejaculation
  • 50 - 150 million sperm/mL
  • Alkaline pH 7.2 - 7.7
• Ovaries

  • are paired glands
  • Ovaries and testes are developmentally homologous
• Uterus Histology


  • Endometrium - simple columnar epithelium, stroma of connective tissue and endometrial glands
  • Stratum functionalis - shed during menstruation
  • Stratum basalis - replaces stratum functionalis each month
  • Myometrium - three layers of smooth muscle
  • Perimetrium - visceral peritoneum
• Hormone Regulation


  1. GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus controls the female reproductive cycle

  2. GnRH stimulates the release of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary gland

  3. FSH initiates growth of follicles that secrete estrogen

  4. Estrogen maintains reproductive organs

  5. LH stimulates ovulation & promotes formation of the corpus luteum which secretes estrogens, progesterone
• Define Juxamedullary


  Next to medulla
• The longer the juxtamedullary the more _?_ can happen

  Filtration
• Kidneys contain mainly

  • Kidney tubules(made of simple epithelium)
  • BV(blood vessels)
• Whats the renal gross anatomy?


  Cortex, medulla, renal sinus, renal pelvis, and bladder
• Renal vein is poorly _?_ but "_?_"


  Oxygenated, "cleaner" : substances are filtered more
• Organs of the urinary system


  2 kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder, urethra,
• Phases of Female Reproductive Cycle

  1. Sperm capacitation

  2. Fertilization
• Sperm capacitation


  Sperm must remain in the female reproductive tract for about 7 hours before they are capable of fertilizing the egg cell
• Accessory sex glands produce fluid to protect sperm and facilitate their movement
• Female Reproductive System

  • Internal Genitalia
  • Ovary
  • Uterine (Fallopian) Tube
  • Uterus
  • Vagina
  • External Genitalia (Vulva)
  • Mons Pubis
  • Labia Majora and Minora
  • Clitoris
  • Mammary Glands
• Events occurring in Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes 

  1. Fimbriae sweep oocyte into the tube
  2. Cilia & peristalsis move it along
  3. Sperm reaches oocyte in the ampulla, fertilization occurs within 24 hours after ovulation
  4. Zygote reaches the uterus about 7 days after ovulation
• During the follicular phase, an egg matures inside one of the ovaries under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
• Menstruation begins when estrogen levels drop below a certain point, causing the endometrium to break down and shed as blood and tissue.
• The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones produced by the pituitary gland and the ovaries.
• What are the functions of the kidney?

  • Help maintain homeostasis by removing waste products: Nitrogenous wastes (ammonia, urea, uric acid, urochrome)
  • Excess Electrolytes (Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl-)
  • Excess Water (regulates blood volume)
  • H+ (regulation of pH)
  • Drugs, old hormones, toxic
• The kidney also

  • Control BP (renin-angiotensin II)
  • Produce hormones (erythropoietin, calcitriol)
  • Regulate Blood glucose levels (Gluconeogenesis)
• Reabsorption refers to the process where useful substances like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and water are returned back to the bloodstream from the tubules.
• Filtration involves passing blood plasma through tiny structures called nephrons, which filter out unwanted substances such as nitrogenous wastes, excess electrolytes, water, H+, drugs, old hormones, and toxic materials.
• Kidneys produce urine through filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion processes.
• Excretion is the removal of waste products from the body via urination.
• Secretion occurs when certain substances are actively transported into the tubule lumen or passively diffuse across the epithelium.
• Nephron - functional units of the kidney responsible for producing urine