Test 1

• Microscopic Anatomy


  Study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification
• Cytology


  Study of cell structures
• Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy)


  Study of structures that can be seen without magnification
• Types of Anatomy


  • Systemic anatomy
  • Regional anatomy
  • Pathologic anatomy
• Systemic anatomy


  Study of anatomy in systems (e.g. skeletal, limbic, digestive)
• Regional anatomy


  Study of anatomy based on regions (e.g. cervix, upper and lower limbs)
• Pathologic anatomy


  Study of organs and tissues to determine the causes and effects of particular diseases
• Physiology


  Details of function
• Examples of Physiology


  • Cardiovascular physiology
  • Neurophysiology
  • Respiratory physiology
  • Pathophysiology
• Cardiovascular physiology


  Study of the function of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
• Neurophysiology


  Study of the function of neurons
• Respiratory physiology


  Study of all the processes of gas exchange and transport between the atmosphere and the body tissues
• Pathophysiology


  Study of abnormal changes in body functions that are the causes, consequences, or concomitants of disease processes
• Levels of Organization


  • Molecules
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ systems
  • Organisms
• Organ Systems


  • Respiratory
  • Cardiovascular
• The three main types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
• Catobolism

  Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones
• Human body


  • Partitioned into two main regions: Axial region (head, neck, trunk) and Appendicular region (upper and lower limbs)
• Body cavities and membranes


  • Subdivisions of ventral cavity with serous membranes
  • Two layers of serous membranes: Parietal layer and Visceral layer
  • Serous fluid acts as a lubricant and reduces friction caused by movement of organs against body wall
• Homeostasis


  The ability of an organism to maintain constant internal environment in response to changing internal or external conditions
• Components of homeostatic systems


  1. Receptor detects a variable

  2. Control center processes input from receptor and initiates changes through effector

  3. Effector is the structure that brings about changes to alter the stimulus
• Negative feedback


  • Most common homeostatic process
  • Variable fluctuates within a normal range around a set point
  • Resulting action is in the opposite direction of the stimulus
• Positive feedback


  • Occurs much less frequently than negative feedback
  • Stimulus is reinforced to continue moving variable in same direction until a climactic event occurs, then body returns to homeostasis
• Matter


  Exists in three forms: Solid, Liquid, Gas
• Atom


  Smallest particle exhibiting chemical properties of an element
• Determining atomic structure


  1. Proton number = atomic number

  2. Neutron number = atomic mass - atomic number

  3. Electron number = proton number
• Atomic structure


  • Atoms have "shells" of electrons surrounding the nucleus
  • Each shell has a given energy level
  • Innermost shell must be filled first (octet rule)
• Isotopes


  Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
• Ions


  Atoms with an overall charge (cations have lost electrons, anions have gained electrons)
• Ionic bond


  Formed when one atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom
• Covalent bond


  Formed when atoms share electrons, can be single, double, or triple
• Polar and nonpolar covalent bonds

  Polar bonds share electrons unequally, nonpolar bonds share electrons equally
• Amphipathic molecules


  Large molecules with both polar and nonpolar regions
• Properties of water


  • Transports substances
  • Lubricates body structures
  • Cushions against sudden forces
  • Excretes wastes
• Cohesion and adhesion


  Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same substance, adhesion is the attraction between molecules of different substances
• Water as universal solvent


  • Most substances dissolve in water, including polar molecules and ions (hydrophilic)
  • Nonpolar molecules do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic)
• Neutral, acidic, and basic solvents


  • Neutral solvents have a pH of 7
  • Acids dissociate to produce H+ ions
  • Bases accept H+ ions
• pH scale


  Ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly basic), with 7 being neutral
• Neutralization


  Process of returning an acidic or basic solution to neutral (pH 7)
• Buffers


  Help prevent pH changes by accepting H+ from excess acid or donating H+ to neutralize base