POLS 207 Final Exam

• Lieutenant Governor: Performs duties comparable to those of the Vice President of the United States. In Texas, this role includes presiding over the state Senate and overseeing legislative proceedings.
• Attorney General: The Attorney General has more real powers and responsibilities than the Lieutenant Governor. They defend the laws and constitution of Texas, represent the state in litigation, and approve public bond issues.
• Comptroller of Public Accounts: Controls the public purse by managing state finances, auditing government expenditures, and ensuring fiscal responsibility.
• Secretary of State: The Secretary of State serves as the chief elections officer, protocol officer for state and international matters, and liaison for the governor on Mexican and border affairs.
• Land Commissioner: Responsible for managing lands and mineral rights properties owned by the state, including overseeing leases, conservation efforts, and revenue generation.
• Agriculture Commissioner: Handles matters related to agriculture, rural community affairs, and related issues within the state.
• Texas Railroad Commission (3 members): Despite its name, this agency no longer regulates railroads. Instead, it oversees the oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining.
• State Board of Education: The State Board of Education devises policies and sets academic standards for Texas public schools. Additionally, they oversee the state Permanent School Fund and select textbooks for use in Texas schools.
• The Texas governor holds a crucial constitutional position as the state’s chief executive. Their powers include appointment and removal authority, budget oversight, veto powers, and active involvement in state politics. Through appointments, they shape the administration, while their budget recommendations impact resource allocation. Veto powers allow them to influence legislation, and their party position influences state policies. Overall, the governor plays a central role in Texas governance and policymaking.

  
• Post-Adjournment Veto: Occurs after a legislative session has adjourned, and the legislature cannot take further action on it. This type of veto occurs when the governor exercises their authority even after the legislative process has concluded.
• Pocket Veto: Occurs when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, and the president simply lets the bill die by not signing it. Essentially, the bill remains unsigned, and if Congress is no longer in session, it fails to become law.
• Line-Item Veto: Governor retains the power to reject specific items or provisions within a larger bill. Instead of vetoing the entire bill, they can selectively remove certain parts they disagree with.
• Legislative Veto: Involves a vote in Congress to override a presidential decision. If Congress successfully overrides the veto by a 2/3 majority, the bill becomes law despite the president’s objection.
• In the budget process, governors play a limited role. They initiate the process but have minimal involvement beyond that. Their draft budget plans are often disregarded, and they mainly operate at the periphery. They submit budgets at the start and can veto them at the end.
• Executive orders issued by state governors are formal directives or rules given to the executive branch that regulate the operations of the state government and force law, especially during crisis or state emergencies.
• Post-adjournment veto is particularly powerful because it cannot be overrided by the legistlature.
• The Texas budget process involves a multi-step approach to creating a 2-year budget. State agencies prepare detailed Legislative Appropriations Requests (LARs), which outline their funding needs. During the legislative session, the House and Senate review and modify the general appropriations bill based on a biennial revenue estimate (BRE). The governor’s approval and implementation follow, with oversight ensuring efficient resource utilization.
• The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was passed to improve public primary and secondary education by emphasizing standards-based reform. NCLB aimed to increase accountability for schools, school districts, and states, with the belief that setting high standards and measurable goals would enhance educational outcomes.
• Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total value of all the goods and services produced in the United States in a year. It serves as a measure of the size of the US economy.
• A progressive tax is a tax in which the tax rate increases as the taxable amount increases. It means that those with higher incomes are taxed at higher rates, while those with lower incomes pay lower rates
• A regressive tax is a system where the tax rate decreases as income increases. In other words, individuals with higher incomes pay a lower percentage of their income in taxes compared to those with lower incomes.
• Local property taxes serve as the largest revenue source for local governments, although they tend to be regressive. State sales taxes are crucial for state governments and also follow a regressive structure. Additionally, selective sales (excise) taxes apply to specific items like cigarettes, alcohol, and gasoline. State income taxes can vary, either being progressive or flat. Finally, corporate taxes, while popular with voters, may influence businesses’ decisions on relocation.
• States aim to keep corporate taxes low to attract businesses and encourage economic growth.
• Regressive taxes, including sales and property taxes, disproportionately affect lower-income workers, requiring them to pay a higher share of their income compared to wealthier residents.
• Excise taxes are specifically designed to influence behavior by taxing certain goods or services. Examples include taxes on cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, and gasoline. These taxes encourage moderation or discourage consumption of items that may have negative effects on health or the environment.
• The tax burden refers to the proportion of a person’s income that is paid in taxes. When a larger share of income goes toward taxes, the individual experiences a greater tax burden.
• The local level of government is most significantly impacted by limitations on taxation. Local governments rely heavily on revenue generated from property taxes, sales taxes, and other local levies. When these sources are restricted or capped, it directly affects their ability to fund essential services such as schools, public safety, and infrastructure maintenance.
• Most Americans tend to feel that taxes are too high.
• The merit system involves promoting and hiring employees based on their ability to perform a job, rather than on their political connections. It prioritizes qualifications, skills, and competence over political affiliations or connections. In essence, individuals are rewarded based on their merit and suitability for the position.
• The spoils system, also known as the patronage system, relies on personal relationships and networks when making hiring, selection, and promotion decisions. In this system, political loyalty and connections play a significant role in determining who gets appointed to government positions.
• Within the context of governance, outsourcing refers to contracting external entities to perform tasks traditionally handled by government agencies. It aims to improve efficiency and reduce costs while leveraging specialized expertise.
• Revenue bonds are backed by a specific revenue stream and are issued for specific projects. These bonds rely solely on the revenues generated by the projects they finance (such as tolls, fees, or lease payments). As a result, lenders face higher risks due to this project-specific backing, which leads to higher interest payments.
• General obligation bonds can be paid through various tax sources and are backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing municipality. Holders of these bonds rely on the government’s commitment to use its full taxing powers to pay both the principal and interest due on the bonds.
• Academic performance is assessed through various measures, including educational attainment, which considers factors such as the percentage of the population with diplomas, the dropout rate, and standardized test scores.
• Magnet schools are public institutions offering specialized instruction and programs to attract a diverse student body from across a school district. They focus on particular areas of instruction to enhance quality and draw students.
• Charter schools are publicly funded institutions operated by private community groups under a charter from public school districts or other granting agencies. They offer alternatives to traditional K-12 education and can be diverse, including church-based or backed by private investment firms.
• School vouchers are government-funded vouchers that can be redeemed for tuition fees at schools other than the public school a student could attend for free. They provide families with the opportunity to choose alternative education options using public funds.
• The Supreme Court allows aid to parochial schoolchildren if it indirectly supports religion but isn't used for religious teaching. This is permissible under the Lemon Law, which mandates that aid must be for secular purposes, not advance or inhibit religion, and avoid excessive government entanglement.
• States ensure local compliance with educational policy by exercising financial control through the allocation of funds to local school districts. This mechanism allows states to enforce adherence to state-level educational standards and regulations at the local level.
• State boards of education typically control education within a state, overseeing matters ranging from teacher certification to textbook selection. In many states, these boards are mostly appointed by governors, but in Texas, they are elected by the people.