Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates definiton definition

  Hydrated carbon
• What are the key features monosaccharides.

  Contain either a ketone or aldehyde group and an alcohol group
• What is the most common form of optical isomer.

  
  

  L-isomer.
• How do you calculate the number of isomers

  2^n. Where n stands for the number of chiral centres
• Describe cyclisation of monosaccharides

  1. ketone or aldehyde group reacts with its alcohol group

  2. In solution cyclise to form ,ring structures

  3. Cyclisation forms a new anomeric carbon, which gives rise to the anomers
• What is the anomeric carbon

  The chiral centre
• Define mutarotation

  The interconversion of anomers via the open-chain structure
• Features of aldoses

  • Form pyranose rings
  • Anomeric carbon at C-1
• Features of ketoses

  • Form furanose rings
  • Anomeric carbon at C-2
• Describe condensationfor saccharides

  The formation of glycosidic bonds between the anomeric carbon and the hydroxyl group with a loss of water
• Describe hydrolysis of saccharides

  Breaks the glycosidic bond using water
• What is the reducing end of a saccharide

  The unliked anomeric carbon
• What is the non-reducing end of a saccharide

  The linked anomeric carbon
• Where does Aerobic respiration occur and what is the equation

  1. Occurs within the mitochondria

  2. C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O +6CO2 + ATP
• Describe Glycolysis.

  
  

  Occurs within the cytosol and is anaerobic

  Glucose [6Cs] is converted to 2 pyruvate [3Cs]

  
  

  1. Hydrolysis of 2ATP

  2. Glucose is phosphorylated

  3. Lysis of Fructose 1,6 Biphosphate [6C]

  4. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [3C]

  5. 2NAD+ reduced to 2NADH

  6. 4ADP phosphorylated
• Describe the Link reaction

  Transports pyruvate into the mitochondrial matrix

  Pyruvate [3C] is converted into Acetyl CoA [2C]

  
  

  1. Decarboxylation
  2. Coenzyme A
  3. NAD+ reduced to NADH
• Describe the Kreb cycle

  Produces GTP, 2CO2, 3NADH, and FADH2.

  Occurs twice.

  
  

  1. Acetyl CoA converts oxaloacetate [4C] into citrate [6C]

  2. Decarboxylation

  3. Reduction of NAD+

  4. 5C intermediate

  5. Decarboxylation

  6. NAD+ reduced

  7. 4C intermediate

  8. NAD+ reduced

  9. FAD reduced

  10. GDP phosphorylated
• Describe the Electron transport chain

  • On the inner membrane of the mitochondria
  • The cristae are projections that hold ATP synthsase
• Define chemiosmosis for ATP production

  
  

  The movement of ions is used to phosphorylate ADP
• Describe Oxidative phosphorylation

  The process of producing ATP via chemiosmosis and the ETC

  
  

  1. NADH and FADH2 release their electrons at the ETC

  2. H dissociates into protons and electrons

  3. Electrons move along the ETC and lose energy

  4. Energy pumps protons into intermembrane space

  5. Protons transported through ATPase into the matrix

  6. ATP production

  7. Hydrogen ions are converted to hydrogen

  8. Water production
• What types of sugars are called reducing sugars

  Open-chain forms have free aldehyde or ketone groups.
• How is copper affected by reducing sugars

  Cu + converted to Cu2+
• What is the colour change for the reduction of copper

  Blue to red.
• What is the red copper precipitate

  Cu2O
• What is an amino sugar

  Monosaccharide with an amino group replacing the hydroxyl group.
• What are uronic acids

  Monosaccharides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a carboxyl group.
• What is the key uronic acid

  Vitamin C
• What are the 3 main disaccharides

  Lactose, Sucrose and Maltose.
• What is lactose made of

  beta Galactose and glucose.
• what is the glycosidic bond in lactose

  1 - 4
• What is sucrose made of

  Alpha glucose and beta fructose
• What is the glycosidic bond in sucrose

  1 - 2
• What is maltose made of

  Alpha glucose and glucose.
• What bond is in maltose

  1 - 4
• What breaks down maltose

  Maltase
• Where is lactose found

  Dairy products
• Where is sucrose found

  Fruits
• What is table sugar

  sucrose
• What does the hydrolysis of starch produce

  Maltose
• What are the types of polysaccharides

  storage and structural