Psychology

• Individual differences


  Distinctiveness and variations among people's characteristics and behavioral patterns
• Situationism


  The situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one's behavior
• Assessment


  The measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison
• Types of assessment


  • Formal assessment
  • Informal assessment
• Formal assessment


  Objective, standardized and organized
• Informal assessment


  Varies from case to case and from one assessor to the other, open to subjective interpretations
• Psychological assessment methods


  • Psychological Test
  • Interview
  • Case study
  • Observation
  • Self-Report
• Psychological Test


  An objective and standardized measure of an individual's mental and/or behavioural characteristics
• Interview


  Involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis
• Case study


  An in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment
• Observation


  Employing systematic, organized and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in time
• Self-Report


  A method in which the person provides factual information about themselves and their open beliefs that they hold
• Psychological attributes are multi-dimensional, and these are categorized on the basis of varieties of tests used in psychological literature
• Intelligence


  The global capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges
• Definitions of intelligence


  • Ability to judge well, understand well and reason well (Alfred Binet)
  • Global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment (Weschler)
  • Ability to adapt to the environment and actively modify or shape it (Gardener and Stenberg)
• Theories of intelligence


  • Psychometric Approach
  • Information-Processing Approach
  • Alfred Binet's One Factor Theory
  • Charles Spearman's Two Factor Theory
  • Louis Thurstone's Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
  • Arthur Jensen's Hierarchical Model
  • J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect Model
  • Howard Gardener's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
  • Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
  • PASS Model
• Psychometric Approach


  Considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities, expresses the individual's performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities
• Information-Processing Approach


  Describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving, focuses on how an intelligent person acts and emphasizes studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behavior
• Alfred Binet's One Factor Theory


  Intelligence consisted of one similar set of abilities that can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual's environment
• Charles Spearman's Two Factor Theory


  Intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) that includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances and some specific factors (s-factors) that are specific abilities
• Louis Thurstone's Theory of Primary Mental Abilities


  Intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively independent of the others: verbal comprehension, numerical abilities, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, inductive reasoning
• Arthur Jensen's Hierarchical Model


  Abilities operating at two levels: Level 1 is associative learning, Level 2 is cognitive competence involving higher-order skills
• J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect Model


  Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions: Operations, Contents, and Products
• Howard Gardener's Theory of Multiple Intelligences


  Intelligence is not a single entity, distinct types of intelligences exist, each independent of the other: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic
• Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory


  Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture. Three types: componential (analytical), experiential (creative), and contextual (practical)
• PASS Model


  Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems: Arousal/Attention, Simultaneous and Successive Processing, and Planning
• Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)


  A battery of tests that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling, for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age
• There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
• Successive Processing


  Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another
• Planning


  1. Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness

  2. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation
• PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally or informally from the environment
• Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)


  A battery of tests developed by Das and Naglieri, that consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling
• The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age
• Intelligence


  A product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to formally measure intelligence


  1905
• Mental Age (MA)


  A measure of a person's intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group
• Chronological Age (CA)


  The biological age from birth
• Retardation


  Being two mental age years below the chronological age
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ)


  Mental age divided by the chronological age and multiplied by a 100
• The average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age