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• A transverse (horizontal) plane divides the body into upper and lower sections. A frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into front and back sections. A sagittal plane divides the body into left and right sides. An oblique plane divides the body into sections at an angle, neither perfectly horizontally nor perfectly vertically.
• Lateral refers to being away from the body’s midline, while medial refers to being toward the midline. Anterior refers to being toward the front of the body. Proximal refers to being towards where the body part attaches to the trunk. Superior refers to being towards the upper part of the body.
• Superficial means being closer to the body’s surface, while deep means being further into the body. The hair is the most superficial part of the head listed.
• Enzymes are proteins. They are not composed of DNA, lipids, or carbohydrates.
• The cell is the basic unit of life. Each eukaryotic cell contains organelles that each have a specific function. Tissues and organs are composed of cells.
• The centriole is the organelle in a eukaryotic cell that organizes and guides chromosomal movement during cellular reproduction. Cilia are hair-like extensions that move substances over a cell’s surface. The Golgi apparatus packages proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum into vesicles for transport to other parts of the cell or for secretion. Mitochondria are where ATP is made by cellular respiration.
• Meiosis results in a diploid cell making 4 haploid cells. In this case, meiosis of a diploid cell with 46 chromosomes should make 4 haploid cells each having 23 chromosomes. Mitosis of a diploid cell makes 2 diploid cells.
• Meiosis occurs in the gonads of females (ovaries) and males (testes).
• Histology refers to the study of tissues. Cytology refers to the study of cells. Anatomy refers to the study of the various structures of the body and their locations. Physiology refers to how various parts of the body function.
• Epithelial tissue, specifically glandular epithelia tissue, may secrete mucus. Nervous, muscle, and connective do not.
• Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue type in the body. This is because it provides structure, support, and protection for the various organs throughout the body. There are multiple types of connective tissue, including fibrous types, bone, and blood.
• Skeletal muscle is voluntary, meaning that this type of muscle tissue is under conscious control. For example, the muscles that control limb movement are skeletal muscles. Both smooth and cardiac (heart) muscle are involuntary, meaning that they are not under conscious control. Smooth muscle is found in internal organs and in the digestive system, various organs that an individual does not consciously control. There is no rough muscle.
• The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the skin’s epidermis. Next is the stratum lucidum, then the stratum granulosum, then the stratum spinosum, then finally the stratum basale (stratum germinativum) which is the deepest.
• Sebaceous glands release an oily secretion to lubricate skin. Eccrine glands release a watery secretion that evaporates from the skin’s surface, aiding in thermoregulation. Apocrine glands release a thicker secretion that includes cytoplasm from the secreting cells. Adipose tissue is fat tissue; it does not release anything to the skin’s surface.
• The sternum is an example of a flat bone. Long bones include various bones of the limbs including the femur and humerus. Irregular bones include the vertebrae and sacrum. Sesamoid bones include the patella as well as four bones of each hand and two bones of each foot.
• An osteoblast is a cell that makes and secretes collagen and calcium salts. Once secreted, this bone tissue calcifies, trapping the osteoblast, which then transforms into an osteocyte. An osteoclast breaks down and break down bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated progenitor cells that undergo mitosis to make new cells; they differentiate into osteoblasts.
• The axial skeleton includes the bones of the skull (including the occipital bone and mandible), the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones composing the shoulder and hip girdles and the extremities, including the bones of the arm (where the humerus is found).
• The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (which is part of the peripheral nervous system) is responsible for the fight-of-flight response. The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the rest-and-digest response. The somatic nervous system of the peripheral nervous system involves the nerves in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord.
• The cerebellum is the part of the brain responsible for the muscular coordination required for walking. The brain stem is important in controlling vital functions including breathing and heart rate. The cerebrum is important for sensory interpretation, thinking, personality, and movement. The diencephalon (which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus) relays and processes sensory information.
• The hypothalamus links the endocrine and nervous systems, helping the body to maintain homeostasis of various sorts. The brain stem and the thalamus are parts of the nervous system. The pituitary gland is part of the endocrine system.
• The pancreas is the endocrine gland important in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis. The adrenal medulla produces hormones involved in the body’s fight-or-flight (sympathetic nervous system) response. The parathyroid is important in calcium homeostasis. The thyroid is important in controlling metabolic rate.
• The posterior pituitary releases two hormones: antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin. Adrenocorticotropic hormone and growth hormone are both released by the anterior pituitary. Thyroid hormone is secreted by the thyroid.
• Luteinizing hormone triggers ovulation in females. Estrogen is responsible for the development of female sexual characteristics. Progesterone is important for maintaining pregnancy. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
• Platelets are important in blood clotting. Plasma is the liquid portion of blood. Erythrocytes are red blood cells that carry oxygen to cells. Leukocytes are white blood cells and have a variety of functions in the immune system.
• The right atrium is the heart chamber that receives deoxygenated blood returning from the body. Blood is then pumped to the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, then from the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle, then through the aorta to the body.
• The mitral valve is located between the left atrium with the left ventricle. The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. There is no valve located between the two atria, and there is also no valve located between the two ventricles.
• The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle while the coronary sinus drains blood from the heart muscle directly into the right atrium. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the lower half of the body to the right atrium after circulation. The aorta is the blood vessel that receives oxygenated blood from the left ventricle.
• The capillaries have the thinnest walls (only a single cell thick) to allow for each exchange of nutrients and gases with tissues. Arteries have relatively thick walls to carry blood under high pressure from the heart. As arteries get farther away from the heart, they become thinner, with the smallest arteries being called arterioles. Venules are thin veins that drain blood from capillaries and return it to veins.
• The trachea, lungs, and bronchi are part of the lower respiratory system while the nose, pharynx, and larynx are part of the upper respiratory system.
• During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts (moves down) and the volume of the thoracic cavity increases; because the air pressure in the thoracic cavity is reduced as a result, air is drawn into the lungs.
• The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two lobes.
• Salivary amylase begins the digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth. The remaining digestion in the mouth is mechanical digestion through mastication.
• The small intestine is the location in the digestive system where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. The stomach aids in mechanical and chemical digestion. The large intestine is the site of water reabsorption. The rectum stores stool until defecation.
• Both mechanical and chemical digestion occur in the stomach. Mechanical digestion occurs through stomach churning. Chemical digestion of proteins through the combined action of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin also occurs.
• Bile is made in the liver and stored by the gall bladder. It empties into the small intestine to emulsify fats into smaller droplets, increasing the surface area of the fat droplets so that the fats are more easily accessible to lipase enzymes secreted into the small intestine by the pancreas. The pancreas also secrete juice into the small intestine that neutralizes acidic chyme from the stomach and contains enzymes to further digest proteins and carbohydrates.
• The large intestine and kidneys are the two types of organs in the body that are important sites of water reabsorption. The large intestine reabsorbs water that travels through the digestive system and/or that is secreted into the digested system during the digestive process. The kidneys reabsorb water during the blood filtration process. 
• Sperm develop in the seminiferous tubules and are matured and stored in the epididymis. The vas deferens transports sperm to the urethra prior to ejaculation. The prostate produces seminal fluid.
• The follicle develops into the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone and estrogen, stimulating endometrium development.
• The route of blood in the pulmonary circuit is from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery to the lungs (where the deoxygenated blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide) to the pulmonary vein to the left atrium.
• Leukocytes


  White blood cells