MODULE 6: MEMORY

• Memory


  An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage
• Processes in Memory


  1. Encoding

  2. Storage

  3. Retrieval
• Encoding


  Happens when sensory information is received by our brain and translated into a perception or mental representation
• Storage


  Involves keeping or storing information
• Retrieval


  Bringing an information out from storage
• Information Processing Model


  1. Sensory memory

  2. Short-term memory

  3. Long-term memory
• Sensory memory


  • Takes in information from your senses in the form of neural impulses
  • Sensory memory fades very quickly unless it has been paid attention to or processes by the cortical areas of the brain
• Iconic memory


  • Lasts for a few secs
  • Requires attention to perceive changes or identify objects
• Eidetic memory


  The ability to vividly recall an image you are exposed to, but only briefly, as if actually visible
• Echoic memory


  • Lasts for around 4 secs
  • Holds auditory information for high cortical processing
• Short-term memory


  • Any piece of information that enters your consciousness
  • Only information that we have given selective attention enters the short-term memory
• Chunking


  Grouping pieces of information so that they form a chunk
• Maintenance rehearsal


  Repeating the info out loud; simply paying attention to the pieces of information that you are holding in your short term memory
• Broadbent's Filter Theory


  Selective attention - ability to focus only on one stimulus from among all sensory input
• Treisman's Attenuation Theory


  Sensory info that we haven't attended only has "attenuated" signals in comparison to selectively attended info
• Short-term memory


  +- 7 bits of information (5-9)
• Working memory


  Active system that processes the information present within short-term memory
• Functions of Central Executive


  • Attention control
  • Prioritizing
  • Progress tracking
  • Decision-making
  • Memory retrieval
• Executive Function


  • Working memory
  • Cognitive flexibility
  • Self-control
• Long-term memory


  Where you keep memories that have been with you for a long time
• Elaborative rehearsal


  Increases the numbers of retrieval cues
• Types of Long-term Memory


  • Non-declarative Memory (does not require conscious factual remembrance; skills)
  • Declarative Memory (involves factual knowledge and information)
  • Semantic Memory (learned from education/ reading)
  • Episodic Memory (learned from own experiences)
• Semantic Network Model


  Explains how memories are connected in long-term memory
• Parallel Distributed Processing Model


  • Memory involves simultaneous processing across multiple networks
  • The representation of information is distributed
  • Memory and knowledge for specific things are not stored explicitly, but stored in the connections between units
  • Learning can occur with gradual changes in connection strength by experience
• Levels of Processing Model


  Memory depends on depth of processing
• Elaborative rehearsal


  Way of increasing the numbers of retrieval cues
• Retrieval Cues


  • More cues stored with a piece of information the easier the retrieval
• Encoding Specific


  Retrieving memories in the same context or situation in which the encoding happened
• State Dependent


  Retrieving memories when you are in a specific psychological or physiological state (stressed, sad, anxious, …)
• Recall


  • Few or no external cues required
  • Retrieval Failure
  • Serial Position Effect (more likely to recall pieces of information that are at the beginning (Primacy Effect) or end (Recency Effect) of the list)
• Recognition


  Matching incoming sensory information to what is already in memory
• Misinformation Effect


  Creation of false memories due to information given after the event
• False Memory Syndrome


  Creation of false memories under suggestion particularly through hypnosis
• Reasons for Forgetting


  • Encoding Failure (information has not been encoded)
  • Memory Trace Decay Theory (physical changes in the brain due to memory fades with disuse)
  • Interference (Proactive Interference - older material interferences with recall of newer information, Retroactive Interference - newer materials interferences with recall of older information)
• Areas Responsible for Memories


  • Temporal Lobe (short-term/ long-term)
  • Basal Ganglia (fear-based)
  • Cerebellum (nondeclarative)
• Long-term Potentiation


  Strengthening of synaptic connections, neurons communicate more often
• Memory Consolidation


  Changes in synaptic sensitivity and structure of neurons
• Hippocampus


  • Consolidation of declarative memories
  • Partial damage to the hippocampal formation can give rise to anterograde amnesia
  • Nondeclarative/ implicit memory survives