Geog case studies

• Epping Forest


  • Ancient deciduous woodland that runs north-east of London on a high gravel ridge
  • Covers an area of about 2,500 ha (hectares) and is about 19 km long and 4km wide
  • Largest area of public open space near London
• Environments in Epping Forest


  • Deciduous woodland (mostly beech)
  • Grasslands
  • Marshes
• Epping Forest is home to a rich variety of wildlife including wood-boring stag beetles, fallow deer (a type of deer) and the three native woodpecker species
• Over 1,600 ha of the forest has been designation a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a European Special Area of Conservation
• Pollarding


  Cutting trees at about shoulder height, above the level of browsing by animals such as deer. They reshoot at this height, producing new wood for future cutting.
• Pollarding has been used in Epping Forest for many, many years
• Benefits of pollarding


  • Helps trees live longer, because if a tree were not pollarded, its crown would become too heavy and the tree would topple over or split
  • Older trees support a wide range of habits in nooks and crannies for small mammals, birds, invertebrates (like the rare saproxylic beetle) and fungi
• Pollarding is a good example of sustainable management because it ensures a supply of wood for future generations
• The Epping Forest Act of Parliament was passed in 1878, stating that 'the Conservators shall at all times keep Epping Forest unenclosed and unbuilt on as an open space for the recreation and enjoyment of the people'
• Tourist Management Strategies in Epping Forest


  • Providing car parks, toilets and refreshment facilities and maintaining footpaths, to manage recreation
  • Providing three easy-access car parks for people with disabilities
  • Preserving ancient earthworks and buildings
• Other Sustainable Management Strategies in Epping Forest


  • Allowing old trees to die and collapse naturally (unless they're dangerous)
  • Preserving ancient trees by re-pollarding them to enable new shoots to grow
  • Encouraging grazing (there's a herd of 50 cows) to maintain the grassland and its flora and fauna
  • Maintaining ponds to prevent them silting up
  • Preserving the herd of fallow deer
  • Leaving dead wood when it falls in the forest, as it provides a valuable habitat
  • Leaving some grassy areas uncut to encourage wildlife like butterflies
• Sustainable Management


  A management approach that conserves the environment for future generations to enjoy as it is today
• Epping Forest has a complex food web composed of thousands of species
• Epping Forest Ecosystems


  • Wide variety of native tree species that include beech, elm, oak and ash
  • Shrub layer consisting of hazel and holly, along with grasses, brambles, fern, bracken and flowering plants
  • 177 species of lichen and moss
  • Many primary consumers, including insects and small mammals, and deer, along with 38 species of birds
  • Secondary consumers such as owls, adders and foxes
  • 700 species of fungi, important decomposers, which are common due to a large amount of deadwood
  • Over 100 lakes and ponds provide essential habitats for numerous fauna species (animals) and flora (plants)
• The Amazon is the largest tropical rainforest on Earth, sitting within the Amazon River basin and covering some 40% of the South American continent
• Amazon facts


  • It is home to 1000 species of bird and 60,000 species of plants
  • 10 million species of insects live in the Amazon
  • It is home to 20 million people, who use the wood, cut down trees for farms and for cattle
  • It covers 2.1 million square miles of land
  • The Amazon is home to almost 20% of species on Earth
  • The UK and Ireland would fit into the Amazon 17 times!
• In the 1980s, there were shocking news reports that an area of rainforest the size of Belgium was being cut down and subsequently burnt every year, and this deforestation has continued to the present day
• The process of deforestation


  1. Build roads into the forest

  2. Logging firms take out valuable hardwoods

  3. Farmers, often cattle ranchers, burn the rest to make way for cattle pasture
• Causes of deforestation


  • Subsistence and commercial farming
  • Logging
  • Road building
  • Mineral extraction
  • Energy development
  • Settlement & population growth
• Deforestation


  Leads to loss of biodiversity, contributes to climate change, and causes soil erosion
• Deforestation is worse in the South and South East of the Amazon basin, closer to major centres of population in Brazil
• The Western Desert


  • Extends over 200,000 square kilometres and is located in the southwest of the USA
  • Comprises three deserts: the Sonoran Desert, the Mojave Desert and the Chihuahuan Desert
  • Has a low population density with the majority of its inhabitants living in large cities such as Las Vegas and Phoenix, Arizona
• Mineral resources extracted from the Western Desert


  • Coal
  • Rare elements used in the manufacture of hi-tech goods such as mobile phones
  • Copper
  • Uranium
• Energy resources exploited in the Western Desert


  • Solar energy
  • Hydroelectric power
• In the Sonoran Desert, enough solar energy is being produced to power 100,000 homes
• A dam has been constructed on Lake Mead which generates hydroelectric power
• States in the Western Desert


  • California
  • New Mexico
  • Arizona
• Western Desert


  • Low population density
  • Majority of inhabitants live in large cities like Las Vegas and Phoenix
• Minerals extracted in the Western Desert


  • Coal
  • Rare elements used in hi-tech goods like mobile phones (Mojave Desert)
  • Copper (Sonoran Desert)
  • Uranium (Grand Canyon)
• Energy resources in the Western Desert


  • Solar energy
  • Hydroelectric power (Lake Mead)
  • Oil (Arizona)
• Farming in the Western Desert


  • Commercial - farms grow produce to sell
  • Irrigation water from Lake Mead used
• Tourism in the Western Desert


  • Significant industry
  • Natural attractions like Grand Canyon
  • Water sports at Lake Mead
  • Las Vegas attracts over 31 million visitors per year
• Challenges for development in the Western Desert


  • Hot, hostile, remote environment
  • Low precipitation and high evaporation rates
  • Limited accessibility and infrastructure
  • Extreme temperatures
• Precipitation levels in the Western Desert are very low at around 55mm per year, and evaporation rates are high
• The Hoover Dam was constructed on the Colorado River to provide water for drinking and irrigation in the Western Desert
• A large proportion of roads in the Western Desert are unsurfaced
• Temperatures can exceed 49°C in the Western Desert
• The Sahel is located directly south of the Sahara desert and stretches from the east to the west of Africa
• Sahel climate


  • Semi-arid, receiving between 250 and 450 mm of rainfall in total in an average year, but only in one or two months
• Factors contributing to drought in the Sahel


  • Overgrazing and deforestation on marginal land
  • Changes in surrounding ocean temperature
  • Climate change