Non-Experimental Methods

• Non-experimental research


  Researchers do not manipulate any variables or randomly assign participants to a control or treatment group. It is usually descriptive or correlational, which means that you are either describing a situation or phenomenon simply as it stands, or you are describing a relationship between two or more variables, all without any interference from the researcher.
• Experimental research


  Type of research that uses a scientific approach towards manipulating one or more variables and measuring their effect on the dependent variables- involves the comparison of one or more conditions. When done correctly, experimental designs can provide evidence for cause and effect.
• Non-experimental research methods cannot determine any causal effects
• While validity is still a concern in non-experimental research, the concerns are more about the validity of the measurements, rather than the validity of the effects
• Non-experimental research methods


  • Case Studies
  • Naturalistic Observations
  • Interviews
  • Surveys
  • Correlational Research
• Experimental research methods


  • Lab Experiments
  • Field Experiments
  • Natural Experiments
  • Quasi Experiments
• Qualitative research


  Data includes text, pictures, field notes, interview transcripts, video footage. Naturally occurring and rich data. Analysis often time consuming and there is no single approach to analysis. Open to interpretation. Usually includes fewer participants.
• Quantitative research


  Closed data in the form of numbers e.g. times, ratings, number of items recalled. Not generally open to interpretation. Analysis of data usually relatively easy (statistics). Often includes data from larger sample sizes.
• Understanding different research methods will assist in understanding the studies that are part of the core units of the course
• Discussing the strengths or limitations of the research method used in a particular study may be an effective way of evaluating research as part of a Paper 1 or 2 essay response
• Some Paper 1 and 2 questions specifically ask you to focus on explaining or evaluating the use of particular research methods
• Question 1A on Paper 3 (HL only) requires you to identify the research method used in the stimulus and to outline two characteristics of that method
• Interviews


  A self-report technique where a researcher engages in direct conversation with individuals to gather information about their thoughts, experiences, and behaviours. The researcher will often record interviews, and the data will be written up as a transcript which can be analysed later.
• Types of interviews


  • Structured
  • Unstructured
  • Semi-structured
  • Focus group
• Structured interviews


  Conducted in a 1:1 setting. Interviewer has a predetermined list of questions which are asked in a specific order and in the same way for each participant. The interview situation is standardised as far as possible.
• Structured interviews


  • Allow for the standardisation of questions and procedures, ensuring consistency across participants. Reduces the potential for interviewer bias.
• Structured interviews


  • The rigidity can limit the interviewer's ability to build rapport and probe deeper into responses. The predetermined nature may limit the ability to explore unexpected avenues of inquiry.
• Unstructured interviews


  Do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the interview flow like a natural conversation.
• Unstructured interviews


  • More flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents' answers. Prioritise the participant's narrative, providing a platform for them to express their thoughts and experiences in their own words. Can increase rapport between the interviewer and respondent.
• Unstructured interviews


  • The absence of a standardized set of questions can lead to significant variability in the data collected, making it challenging to compare responses across participants. The interviewers' personal biases and preconceptions may influence the direction and interpretation of the interview, impacting the objectivity of the data. Analysing and synthesizing the qualitative data can be time-consuming and labour-intensive.
• Semi-structured interviews


  A blend of structured and unstructured interviews. The interviewer has an idea of what questions they will ask in advance, but the phrasing and order of the questions is not set. They follow an interview guide but have the autonomy to stray from it to discuss other topics, ask follow up questions or adjust the exact wording of the question.
• Semi-structured interviews


  • Combine the strengths of structured and unstructured interviews. The interview guide keeps the conversation on task while the flexibility allows the interviewer to probe and follow new lines of inquiry. Produce rich and detailed data due to the open-ended nature of the questions.
• Semi-structured interviews


  • Data analysis is time-consuming and labour-intensive. There is a risk of subjectivity as the flexible nature could result in the researcher asking leading questions. It can be challenging to compare responses between participants depending how far the interviewer departed from the predetermined list of questions.
• Focus group interviews


  A special type of semi-structured interview conducted with a group of around 6-10 people who share a commonality relevant to the topic. The role of the interviewer is to facilitate discussion between participants.
• Focus group interviews


  • Efficient way to collect data from several participants at the same time. Group dynamic may yield more complex responses as participants build on each others' comments and discuss multiple perspectives. In some cases, people may be more willing to share experiences in a group of similar individuals.
• Focus group interviews


  • Group dynamics may lead to bias if one or more participants dominate the discussion. Participants may feel pressured to conform to social norms. Confidentiality is harder to maintain than individual interviews. Requires highly skilled interviewers to foster inclusive participation.
• Interviews don't rely on participant literacy to generate data which may increase representation of some groups
• Interviews allow the interviewer to build rapport with interviewees and offer encouragement and/or clarification
• Interviews can produce rich qualitative data which may provide deeper insight into topics
• Interviews are more time consuming to conduct and analyse than written surveys which can result in smaller sample sizes being used
• The lack of anonymity in interviews may mean that some people would be uncomfortable sharing personal experiences which may impact the credibility of the data
• Naturalistic observation


  A research method in which the researcher studies behaviour in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation. It involves observing and recording behaviour as it naturally occurs, providing insights into real-life behaviours and interactions in their natural context.
• Written surveys, interviews


  • Don't rely on participant literacy to generate data
  • May increase representation of some groups
• Interviews


  • Interviewer can build a rapport with interviewees
  • Offer encouragement and/or clarification
• Interviews


  • Can produce rich qualitative data
  • Provide deeper insight into topics
• Interviews


  • More time consuming to conduct and analyse than written surveys
  • Can result in smaller sample sizes being used
• Interviews


  • Lack of anonymity due to the face to face nature
  • May mean that some people would be uncomfortable sharing personal experiences
  • May impact the credibility of the data
• Naturalistic observation


  Research method in which the researcher studies behaviour in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation
• Naturalistic observation


  1. Observing and recording behaviour as it naturally occurs

  2. Providing insights into real-life behaviours and interactions in their natural context
• Types of observation


  • Covert vs. Overt
  • Participant vs. Non Participant