Observations

• Types of observations

  • Controlled
  • Naturalistic
  • Covert
  • Overt
  • Participant observation
  • Non-participant observation
• Controlled observation

  An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting
• Naturalistic observation

  An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur
• Covert observation

  the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed
• Overt observation

  the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed
• Participant observation

  Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing
• Non-participant observation

  Observation study where the researcher does not join the group or take part in the situation they are observing
• Strengths: Controlled observation

  • Fairly quick to conduct: many observations can take place within a short amount of time so a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population
  • Can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.
• Limitation: Controlled observation

  Controlled observations can lack validity due to the demand characteristics when participants know they are being watched they may act differently
• Strengths: Naturalistic observation

  • By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting studies have greater ecological validity
  • often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues of enquiry not thought of before
• Limitations: Naturalistic observation

  • Less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled, making it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in the exact same way
  • Researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognise aspects of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention
  • We do not have control over extraneous variables which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established
• Strengths: Covert observation

  • Increases validity as participants aren’t aware of being observed, they are more likely to act naturally
  • Less demand characteristics: participant isn’t aware of the researcher, there would be less chance of them changing their behaviour to fit in with the researchers expectations
• Limitations: Covert observation

  • It creates ethical issues as the participant has not consented to being observed, making it difficult to follow other ethics such as right to withdraw, debrief etc.
  • If the participant becomes aware of the researchers presence, they may change their behaviour, thus decreasing validity
• Strengths: Overt observation

  • Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware that they are being observed
  • If observed for long periods of time, people tend to forget about observers and behave more naturally, particularly when being filmed
• Limitations: Overt observations

  • Increase of social desirability: they are aware of being observed, they may change their behaviour in a way that they feel is favourable to others, which decreases validity
  • Increase chance of demand characteristics: the participant is aware of the researcher, they may change their behaviour in order to fit in with what they think the researcher wants to see
• Strengths: Participant observation

  • Only way to observe behaviours that may be more secretive i.e. cults/gangs
  • Greater accuracy and detail: the participant is involved in the behaviour which allows the researcher to make more valid conclusions about behaviour as they have a greater insight and perspective
• Limitations: Participant observation

  • Researcher may become too involved so may lose objectivity and become biased. There is always the danger that we will “see” what we want to see which can lead them to selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe, thus reducing the validity of their data
  • It can be difficult to get time or privacy for recording as researchers can’t take notes openly meaning they have to wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations
• Strengths: Non-participant observation

  • Easier to remain objective as the observer is away from distractions and can remain focused – increasing validity
  • The researcher has less influence on behaviour therefore chances of researcher effect are reduced
• Limitations: Non participant observation

  • Participants may be unaware that they are being observed, which can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw
  • Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants, therefore, some behaviours may be interpreted or recorded inaccurately – reducing validity.
• Types of non-participant observations

  Structured observation

  Unstructured observation
• Structured observation

  An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour, producing quantitative data
• Unstructured observation

  Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible which often produces qualitative data
• Strengths: Structured observation

  • Easier to record as there is a specific focus on certain behaviours, increasing the validity, as the researcher is not distracted by behaviours that may be irrelevant to the research aim
  • Easier to establish inter-rater reliability due to the clear, planned focus on behaviour, the research could be easily used and understood in a consistent way, also improving replicability
• Limitations: Structured observation

  • Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus, behaviours that may be important may be missed due to it not being part of the planned behaviours
  • Open to observer bias as the researcher may interpret behaviours in a way that fits into the planned behavioural categories, therefore reducing validity as it may not reflect what actually happened.
• Strengths: Unstructured observation

  • Increases validity as the researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going on, ensuring that more valid conclusions are made of behaviour, as a wide perspective is gathered
  • Applicable to a wide range of contexts as this method is extremely easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour
• Limitations: Unstructured observation

  • Harder to record as the researcher has to pay attention to everything around them, this may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity
  • Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find