Liberalism thinkers

• John Locke


  CLASSICAL (1632-1704)
• Two Treatises of Government


  Famous book written by John Locke (1960)
• Human Nature(JL)

  • Prior to state's existence, there was a 'natural society' – served mankind's natural interests – 'state of nature'
  • Disagreed with people like Hobbes who said life was 'brutish and short'
  • More optimistic, believed humans were guided by rationalism, had 'natural rights and laws' e.g. property rights
• Society(JL)

  • Resolve disputes between individuals
  • Only legitimate if respects natural rights
  • Should be no worse off under a state than would be without it
• Economy(JL)

  • State policy should respect 'natural right' to private property
  • State should arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources
• State(JL)

  • Denied kings' 'divine right', and that state had been created by God
  • State created by mankind for mankind
  • Should reflect the fact that citizens had voluntarily consented to accept the state's ruling in return for improving their situation (social contract)
  • Requires ongoing consent of the people
  • 'Limited' state confirmed by the dispersal of powers
  • Lawmakers should be separated from law enforcers
• Mary Wollstonecraft


  CLASSICAL (1759 -1797)
• Famous book

  'A Vindication of the Rights of Women' (1792)
• Human Nature (MW)

  • Optimistic and guided by reason; should apply to all humans, male and female
  • Women were complicit in their subjugation as they cared for marriage and motherhood
  • Without education, individuals could never develop their rational faculties and reach their full potential, and see 'absurdity' of illiberal principles such as the divine right of kings
• Society (MW)

  • English society; implied women were not rational – denied individual freedom; Not allowed land ownership, not able to vote
  • England limiting their stock of intelligence/wisdom/morality in their treatment of women
  • Denying women liberty = leaving society vulnerable to doctrines that threatened the whole spirit of enlightenment (Extremism)
  • Women should receive formal education
• Economy (MW)

  • Free market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women
• State (MW)

  • Women's lack of vote = blatant violation of 'government by consent'
  • Praised French & American Revolutions – French Revolution's stress of 'citizens' and their gender indifference
  • Monarchical state should be replaced by republics
• John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)


  Famous book; 'On Liberty' (1859)
• Human Nature (JSM)

  • Self regarding; Religious worship, & personal views that do not harm others. Should be tolerated.
  • Other regarding; Violent behaviour, affects others and harms their freedom. Should not be tolerated.
  • Not fixed nature, forever progressing to a higher level.
  • 'Developmental Individuality'; Humans could become so much more – 'better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied'.
• Society (JSM)


  • Tolerate diverse ideas to ensure new ideas emerge that could benefit society.
  • Bad ideas exposed via open, rational debate.
• Economy (JSM)


  • Laissez-Faire Capitalism – vital to progress, individual enterprise and individual initiative.
• State (JSM)


  • Harm Principle; State/individuals should tolerate one's actions unless it causes harm to others.
  • Negative Freedom; Freedom was the absence of restraint.
  • Fear of 'tyranny of the majority' through democracy. The idea that some people's individuality and 'government by consent' would be compromised by the wishes of most in society.
• John Rawls – MODERN (1921 – 2002)


  Main work; 'A Theory of Justice' (1971)
• Human Nature (JR)

  • Humans (being rational) would choose a society where the poorest members fared better than they do in present society.
• Society (JR)

  • Original position; people asked to construct from stratch a society that they judged to be superior to the one they lived in currently – wealth and power distribution?
  • Veil of ignorance; Individuals would have no preconceptions of who they'd be in the new society – white, ethnic minority, rich, poor? Fairer society, with reduced inequalities, was one that individuals would choose.
• Economy (JR)

  • Certain amount of wealth redistribution to ensure a just society.
  • Extensive public spending funded by progressive taxation.
• State (JR)

  • Need more than just formal equality under the law.
  • Need greater social and economic equality to ensure that people can live rich and fulfilled lives.
  • Enlarged state with significant wealth redistribution was consistent with liberalism stress upon government by consent.
• Betty Friedan – MODERN (1921-2006)


  Main work; 'The Feminine Mystique' (1963)
• Human Nature (BF)

  • Human nature had advanced in a way that discourages women's self advancement.
• Society (BF)

  • All humans should be free to seek control over their own lives and the full realisation of their potential.
  • Gender was a serious hindrance to females.
  • Attitudes in society, not human nature, that condemned most women to underachievement. This was nurtured via society e.g. schools, religion, the media, mainstream literature, theatre, cinema. Conditioned women to feel that their lot in life was determined by human nature rather than their own rationality and enterprise.
• Economy (BF)

  • Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination.
• State (BF)

  • Real change and progress – only possible via legal equality by procedures in the liberal state.
  • Endorsed US Constitution and endorsed its capacity to allow continuous improvements to individuals' lives.
  • Rejected feminist idea that state was 'patriarchal' and women were forever under the dominant gender.