Carbohydrates

• Classification of Carbohydrates


  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
• Monosaccharides


  Simplest form of carbohydrates, cannot be broken down into smaller carbohydrates by hydrolysis
• Monosaccharides


  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Galactose

  
• Glucose


  Can be broken down by glycolysis in cellular respiration, produced as cellulose in plants
• Fructose


  Belongs to the ketose group, differently shaped monosaccharides break down the specific enzyme

  
• Galactose


  Produced by mammals in the form of milk
• Disaccharides


  • Trehalose
  • Lactulose
  • Cellobiose
  • Chitobiose

  
• Trehalose


  Can be found in fungi, plants, and insects
• Lactulose


  Helpful for the treatment of constipation and liver diseases
• Cellobiose


  Can be seen in bacteriology which is a form of chemical analysis
• Chitobiose


  Seen in some bacteria, exoskeletons of insects and is also found in fish, octopus, and squid
• Oligosaccharides


  • Trisaccharides
  • Tetrasaccharides
  • Pentasaccharides
  • Hexasaccharides

  
• Trisaccharides


  Example: Raffinose, composed of glucose, galactose and fructose

  
• Tetrasaccharides


  Composed of four sugar units, example: Sesamose, made up of 2 galactose, 1 fructose, 1 glucose

  
• Types of Polysaccharides


  • Homopolysaccharides
  • Heteropolysaccharides

  
• Homopolysaccharides


  Polysaccharide that contains the same type of monosaccharides, e.g. Glycogen, Starch, Inulin

  
• Heteropolysaccharides


  Polysaccharide that contains different types of monosaccharides, e.g. Hyaluronic Acid, Heparin, Chondroitin-4-sulfate, Gamma globulin

  
• Functional Groups


  • Carbonyl group (C=O)
  • Hydroxyl group (-OH)
  • Aldehyde group (R-CH=O)
  • Ketone group (R-CO=R)
• Aldose sugar


  A sugar containing the aldehyde group, e.g. Glucose, Galactose

  
• Ketose sugar


  A monosaccharide that contains a ketone group, most commonly found in many naturally occurring fruits and some plant foods like honey and some vegetables

  
• Functions of Carbohydrates


  • Store energy
  • Provide energy
  • Build macromolecules
  • Spare protein and fat for other uses
• Carbohydrate metabolism


  The sum of all catabolic (break down) and anabolic (synthesis) reactions involving carbohydrates in the body
• Catabolism/Catabolic Reaction


  Break down larger molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins from ingested food, into their constituent smaller parts
• Anabolism/Anabolic Reaction


  Synthesize larger molecules from smaller constituent parts, using ATP as the energy source for these reactions. Anabolic reactions build bone, muscle mass, and new proteins, fats, and nucleic acids
• Fluid mosaic model
• Carbohydrate recommendations for people with diabetes


  • 45% to 60% of daily calories from carbohydrates
  • Women: 45 to 60 grams of carbohydrate per meal
  • Men: 60 to 75 grams of carbohydrate per meal
• NMR


  Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, a technique that allows the molecular structure of a material to be analyzed by observing and measuring the interaction of nuclear spins when placed in a powerful magnetic field
• NMR spectroscopy


  Uses the inherent magnetic properties of specific atomic nuclei to reveal the structure, identity, concentration, and behavior of molecules in solid or liquid samples
• Mass spectrometry


  A technique where the sample is ionized to form charged particles, providing information on the molecular weight, composition, and fragmentation patterns of the carbohydrate
• By combining NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry, we can obtain a comprehensive understanding of the structure of carbohydrates