Psychopathology

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Created by
Isabel Kelleher

Cards (20)

  • Definition of Abnormality
    • Statistical Infrequency
    • Deviation from Social Norms
    • Failure to Function Adequately
    • Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
  • Statistical Infrequency
    • Less common characteristics
    • E.g. IQ and Intellectual Disability Disorder
    • 68% have an IQ of 85- 115.
    • Only 2% score below 70, this is classified as abnormal and can qualify for a diagnosis of IDD
    + Real World Applications, objective assessment for clinical practice
    -Unusual characteristics can be positive such as a higher IQ
  • Deviation from Social Norms
    • Behaviour that is different from the expected standard in a community or society
    • E.g. antisocial personality disorder is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible
    • We make judgements that psychopaths are abnormal because they don't conform to our moral standard
    +Real World Application, used in clinical practice
    -Culturally and situational relative, difficult to judge across cultures
  • Failure to Function Adequately
    • Can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life
    • Rosenham and Seligman 1989, proposed additional signs; no longer conforming to standard social rules like eye contact and personal space, severe personal distress, irrational or dangerous behaviour to themselves or others
    + Sensible threshold for help, treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them the most
    -Discrimination and social control, people who make unusual choices are at risk of being abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted
  • Deviation from ideal Mental Health
    • Jahoda 1958 suggested Ideal Mental Health if we meet the following criteria:
    • No Symptoms or Distress, Rational and Accurate Personal Perception, Self-Actualise, Cope with Stress, Realistic View of World, Good Self-Esteem and Lack Guilt, Independent, Successfully Work, Love and Leisure
    + Comprehensive Definition, provides a checklist against which we can assess and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals
    -May be Culture-Bound, difficult to apply content from one culture to another
  • Phobias
    • Behavioural: Panic, Avoidance, Endurance
    • Emotional: Anxiety, Fear, Unreasonable Response
    • Cognitive: Selective Attention, Irrational Beliefs, Cognitive Distortions
  • Depression
    • Behavioural: Activity Levels, Disruption to Sleep and Eating, Aggression and Self-Harm
    • Emotional: Lowered Mood, Anger, Lowered Self-Esteem
    • Cognitive: Poor Concentration, Attending To and Dwelling on the Negative, Absolutist Thinking
  • OCD
    • Behavioural: Repetitive Compulsions, Compulsions Reduce Anxiety, Avoidance
    • Emotional: Anxiety and Distress, Accompanying Depression, Guilt and Disgust
    • Cognitive: Obsessive Thoughts, Cognitive Coping Strategies, Insight into Excessive Anxiety
  • Behavioural Approach to Explain Phobias
    • Mowrer 1960, proposed two-process model of conditioning
    • Acquired by classical conditioning (Little Albert 1920), loud noise made when Albert (9 Months) shown rat= Learn to associate the two together
    • Fear then shown when Albert saw the rat even with no noise, fear also spread to other furry objects
    • Maintained through Operant Conditioning, e.g. avoiding phobic stimulus reduces fear and anxiety= reinforces avoidance and maintains phobia
  • Behavioural Approach to Explain Phobias Evaluation
    + Real World Applications, exposure therapies= once avoidance is prevented it ceases to reinforce anxiety= phobia cured
    -Doesn't Account for Cognitive Aspects, e.g. irrational beliefs not addressed. Doesn't completely explain the symptoms of phobias
    +/- Phobias and traumatic experiences, two-process model demonstrates link between bad experiences and phobias (Little Albert). But not all fears are due to a bad experience, and not all bad experiences cause phobias. Not a complete explanation
  • Behaviour Approach to Treating Phobias- Systematic Desensitisation
    • Anxiety Hierarchy, Relaxation Techniques, Can't be relaxed and afraid at same time= reciprocal inhibition
    • Exposure at the Lowest level of hierarchy and work way up to top
    + Effective, Gilroy et al 2003, followed 42 people who had this therapy against spiders in 3, 45 minutes sessions. At both 3 and 33 months they were less fearful than control group treated with just relaxation
    + Learning Disabilities, Cognitive therapies can be difficult for them as it requires complex rational thinking, the most appropriate therapy for them
  • Behavioural Approach for Treating Phobias- Flooding
    • Immediate exposure with no build up, phobic response cannot be sustained and you gradually become relaxed with the stimulus
    • Highly unpleasant so fully informed consent needed
    + Cost effective, can work after only one session, more people can be treated at the same cost as other studies
    -Traumatic, provokes tremendous anxiety and dropout rates are high, therapist may avoid this treatment
  • Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression- Beck 1967
    • Faulty information processing- ignores the positives
    • Negative self schema- interpret all information about themselves negatively
    • Negative Triad- negative views of the world, future and self
    + Real World Application, used for screening and treatment of depression = clinical practice
    + Research Support, Beck and Clark 1999 concluded cognitive vulnerabilities were more common in depressed people and preceded the depression = shows association
  • Cognitive Approach for Explaining Depression- Ellis ABC 1962
    • Activating event- negative events trigger irrational beliefs
    • Beliefs- irrational beliefs
    • Consequences- emotional and behavioural consequences
    + Real world Applications, created treatment REBT= argues patients irrational beliefs
    -Not all depression is triggered by life events (reactive) cause might not be clear (endogenous)= partial explanation
    -Ethical Issues, blames the depressed person
  • Cognitive Approach to Treating Depression
    • Beck's CBT - challenges neg triad, patient often set homework to show evidence against beliefs "client as scientist"
    • Ellis' REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy) - adds to becks (ABCDE) Dispute and Effect, vigorous argument changes irrational belief and breaks link between neg life events and depression. Different ways of disputing - empirical argument (involves evidence) and logical argument
    • Behavioural activation - decrease avoidance and isolation and increase engagement in positive activities like exercise and going out to dinner
  • Cognitive Treatments for Depression Evaluation
    + Effective, March et al 2007 compared CBT and antidepressants, plus a combination of both. Found 81% of both CBT and antidepressants had improved but combined improved by 86%
    -Lack of effectiveness for severe cases and learning difficulties= only appropriate to specific range of people
    -High relapse rates, Ali et al 2017 found 42% relapsed in 6 months and 53% within a year of treatment, CBT may need to be repeated periodically
  • Biological Approach to Explaining OCD- Genetics
    • Lewis 1936- 37% had parents with OCD and 21% siblings
    • Candidate Genes genes which create vulnerability to OCD + involved with regulating development of serotonin
    • Seems to be polygenic (Taylor 2013, up to 230 genes) may also be linked to dopamine
    • Aetiologically heterogenous- different combinations of genes cause the disorder in different people
    + Research, Nestadt 2010, 68% of MZ shared OCD compared to 31% DZ = genetic influence
    -Risk factors, Cromer 2017, over half of OCD sample experienced a traumatic event= partial explanation
  • Biological Approach to Explaining OCD- Neural
    • Serotonin- low levels of serotonin= low moods
    • Decision-making system (hoarding)- may be associated with abnormal functioning in lateral frontal lobes (responsible for logical thinking and decisions). Left parahippocampal gyrus (associated with processing unpleasant emotions) functions abnormally in OCD
    + Research, antidepressants like SSRI's are effective at reducing symptoms = biological factors for OCD
    -Co-morbidity with Depression, people could low serotonin cause they are depressed as well =Serotonin may not be related to OCD
  • Biological Approach to Treating OCD
    • SSRIs- prevents reabsorption and breakdown= increase serotonin in synapse .e.g. fluoxetine 20mg but may increase if no effects, 3-4 months of daily use before effects felt
    • May be used with CBT, drugs reduce symptoms= engage better with CBT
    • Tricyclics- older antidepressant but effects more than just serotonin (Clomipramine)
    • SNRIs- increase serotonin and noradrenaline
    + Effective, typically reduce 70% of symptoms
    + Cost effective and non-disruptive = popular
    -Side effects, reduced quality of life= stop taking them, drugs no longer effective
  • How SSRIs work on Neurons